Prospects of the sustainability of traditional and ethnic foods and their applications for basic health care in human society

2.3.1 Family importance value (FIV)

The relative significance of families was assessed using the FIV, which was calculated by dividing the number of informants who mentioned the family by the total number of informants, as described by Heinrich et al. (2006): $$\mathrm{F}\mathrm{I}\mathrm{V}=\frac{FC\left(family\right)}{N}\times 100$$

Where ‘FC’ is the number of informers revealing the family, while ‘N’ is the total number of informants who participated in the research.

2.3.2 Popular therapeutic use value (POPUT)

The metric known as POPUT is employed to assess the significance of a plant species for medicinal and therapeutic purposes. Following formula was used to calculate POPUT (Bulut et al., 2017): $$\mathrm{P}\mathrm{O}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{U}\mathrm{T}=\frac{\mathrm{N}\mathrm{U}\mathrm{R}\mathrm{I}\mathrm{T}}{\mathrm{T}\mathrm{U}\mathrm{R}}$$

Where ‘NURIT’ refers to the number of use reports for each sickness or treatment effect. ‘TUR’ is the total number of use reports.

2.3.3 Informant consensus factor (ICF)

The ICF was determined based on the consensus among informants about the specific treatment for each disease category, using the given formula (Heinrich et al., 2006): $$\mathrm{I}\mathrm{C}\mathrm{F}=\frac{\mathrm{N}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{r}-\mathrm{N}\mathrm{t}}{\mathrm{N}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{r}-1}$$

Where ‘Nur’ is the total use reports for each category, while ‘N_t’ is the number of taxa (species) used for a particular plant-use category by all informants.

2.3.4 Plant part value (PPV)

The value of plant parts is assessed as a measure of the relative importance of various plant components in traditional medicines. PPV was calculated as (Farooq et al., 2019) $$\mathrm{P}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{V}(\%)=\frac{\epsilon RU(plantpart)}{\epsilon RU}\times 100$$

Where $\in \mathrm{R}\mathrm{U}\left(\mathrm{p}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{t}\right)\mathrm{e}\mathrm{x}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{m}$ of uses reported per part of the plant and $\in \mathrm{R}\mathrm{U}=$ total number of uses reported of all parts of the plant.

2.3.5 Relative frequency citation (RFC)

The formula below was employed to calculate the index of the relative frequency of citations (Farooq et al., 2019): $$\mathrm{R}\mathrm{F}\mathrm{C}=\frac{\mathit{FC}}{N}$$

Where FC is the number of informants who reported using a species and N is the total number of informants.

2.3.6 Use value (UV) of plant species

UV is a quantitative measure indicating the relative importance of a plant species based on its frequency of use by informants in a community. It was calculated using the formula (Ahmad et al., 2021): $$\mathrm{U}\mathrm{V}=\sum \frac{\mathrm{U}\mathrm{i}}{\mathrm{N}}$$

Where ‘UV’ denotes each species' use value, ‘Ui’ indicates the number of uses recorded by each informant for a specific species, and ‘N’ is the total number of informants.

2.3.7 Relative importance (RI)

The rating of each plant species' use and the body organ systems it treats is determined according to their RI, as stated by Farooq et al., (2019): $$\mathrm{R}\mathrm{I}=\frac{(R.Ph+R.BS)}{2}\times 100$$

Where ‘R. Ph’ denotes relative pharmacological traits. ‘R. Ph’ is determined by dividing the number of uses (U) by the total number of use reports in the whole study. ‘R. BS’ indicates relative body systems treated. The ‘R. BS’ value is obtained by dividing the number of body systems treated by a plant species by the total number of body systems studied.

2.3.8 Fidelity Level (FL)

The fidelity level was determined to assess the value of the species associated with medicines (Farooq et al., 2019): $$\mathrm{F}\mathrm{L}\left(\%\right)=\frac{\mathrm{N}\mathrm{p}}{\mathrm{N}}\mathrm{x}100$$

‘Np’ is the number of species in a particular category. ‘N’ is used to accurately total consumption for specific species.

2.3.9 Relative popularity Level (RPL)

Relative Popularity Level (RPL) is a metric used in ethnobotanical studies to assess the popularity or preference for a particular plant species in treating ailments within a community, based on the consensus among informants (Umair et al., 2017).

2.3.10 Rank order priority (ROP)

The proper ranking of plant species with varying fidelity levels (FL) and Relative Popularity Level (RPL) values is achieved through the utilization of a correction factor referred to as ROP. The ROP is derived from the FL by multiplying the RPL and ROP values (Umair et al., 2017): $$\mathrm{R}\mathrm{O}\mathrm{P}=\mathrm{F}\mathrm{L}\times \mathrm{R}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{L}$$

2.3.11 Frequency index (FI)

The FI was determined through the application of the following formula for the quantitative analysis of the ethnomedicinal plants (Rajbanshi and Thapa, 2019): $$\mathrm{F}\mathrm{I}=\frac{\mathrm{F}\mathrm{C}}{\mathrm{N}}\times 100$$

Where ‘FC’ is the number of traditional healers who mentioned the use of species and ‘N’ is the total number of respondents.

2.3.12 Cultural significance index (CSI)

The CSI was employed to assess the alignment of informant knowledge with the utilization reports for a specific species, with the following formula being utilized for its calculation (Majeed et al., 2020): $$\mathrm{C}\mathrm{S}\mathrm{I}=\sum (\mathrm{i}\times \mathrm{e}\times \mathrm{c})\times \mathrm{C}\mathrm{F}$$

While ‘i’ refers to the management of species that significantly affect the community, ‘e’ indicates the informant's preference for one plant species over another for a specific purpose (value 2 for preferred species and value 1 for non-preferred species) and the letter ‘c’ denotes the frequency of use of a plant species (a species that is cultivated, managed, or operated in any way receives a score of 2 and a score of 1 if the species is still free of any kind).

2.3.13 Family use value (FUV)

The significance of plant families is determined by calculating the FUV, which is quantified using the following formula (Bouafia et al., 2021): $$\mathrm{F}\mathrm{U}\mathrm{V}=\frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }\mathrm{U}\mathrm{V}\mathrm{s}}{\mathrm{n}\mathrm{s}}$$

Where ‘ns’ is the overall number of species within a family and ‘UVs’ is the total usage value of all the species within that family.

2.3.14 Preference ranking (PR)

To ascertain the most suitable medicinal plant for each type of disease, a preference rating exercise was employed. In this activity, the medicinal plant deemed by participants to be the most effective in treating the specified ailments was assigned the highest value, while the one considered the least efficacious was assigned the lowest value. The scores for each species were aggregated to determine their ranking. This allowed for the identification of plants that are utilized by the local community to address frequently reported health conditions (Temam, 2016).

3.4.1 Family importance value (FIV)

The most frequently encountered family in area was Fabaceae (6 species). This prevalence may be attributed to the wide distribution of Fabaceae plant species and their well-documented traditional uses known to indigenous tribes worldwide (Fig. 3). Other species examined in the research area belong to various families, including Asteraceae (5 species), Poaceae (4 species), Amaranthaceae (3 species), Solanaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Verbenaceae and Polygonaceae (2 species each) while all other families were represented by only one species. The wild flora of Fort Abbas was studied and it was found that 71 species and 28 families are represented there. In the study, 69 plant species (85 %), 5 tree species (6 %), and 7 shrubs (9 %) were also identified. The four families with the most represented species were Poaceae (15 species), Euphorbiaceae (8 species), Asteraceae (7 species) and Amaranthaceae (7 species). Plants without leaves, specifically Cuscuta campestris with Haloxylon salicornicum were mentioned (Anwer et al., 2020). In Hafizabad, medicinal plant species from 71 genera and 34 families were documented. The Fabaceae was found to have the most species with eight, followed by the Moraceae and Euphorbiaceae with six each, the Chenopodiaceae with five, the Malvaceae and Solanaceae with four each, the Amaranthaceae with three and the Meliaceae with two species. The use of medicinal plant species from the Asteraceae and Poaceae families was found to be widespread, similar to ethnomedicinal flora reported in other regions of Pakistan (Umair et al., 2017).

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Fig. 3

Percentage of family importance value (FIV).

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3.4.2 Popular therapeutic use value (POPUT)

POPUT is ranged from 0.004 to 0.1 (Table 2). In our study area, out of 40 plant species, 9 species were employed in the treatment of fever. Fever is treated with the following plants: Convolvulus arvensis, Achyranthes aspera, Imperata cylindrica, Mazus pumilus, Aerva persica, Bauhinia variegate, Alhagi maurorum, Seteria viridis, and Xanthium strumariam. According to the responses, the minimum POPUT value was observed for eye diseases (0.004) and headaches (0.004). The highest POPUT value was recorded for fever (0.1) in the study area. Fever was identified as the most prevalent ailment in the research area and the awareness of various herbs that could be utilized for fever treatment was widespread among the population. In this study, POPUT values of 0.08 and 0.07 were calculated for wound healing and stomach issues. A POPUT value of 0.04 was shown by diabetes (Umair et al., 2017), while 0.03 was shown in the current study. POPUT values of 0.14 for stomach illnesses, 0.06 for colds, 0.05 for coughs, and 0.04 for eczema and rheumatism were presented by Bulut et al., (2017). In the current study, 0.05 was shown for cough, which was similar to the value in the studied area; 0.03 was shown for stomach illness, which was the lowest value from the studied area. Similarly, 0.05 was shown for cough in the present study, aligning with the value in the studied area (Bulut et al., 2017).

3.4.3 Informant consensus factor (ICF)

Approximately 40 plant species were utilized and reported by the inhabitants of the field area, which were further categorized into 22 plant families. The ICF values, ranging from 0.73 to 1, were observed. Notably, the highest ICF values were recorded for the treatment of various health issues, including heart problems (1.00), blood pressure (1.00), cholesterol (1.00), throat infection (1.00), enhanced appetite (1.00), eye diseases (1.00), inflammatory diseases (1.00) and headache (1.00). It was noted that these health concerns were reportedly alleviated using individual plant species sourced from the field area, as indicated in Table 2. Conversely, the lowest ICF values were calculated for fever, which was employed for blood purification (0.73) and for the treatment of sexual illnesses (0.76). Noteworthy plant species used in addressing skin issues encompass Convolvulus arvensis, Euphorbia prostrata, Azadirachta indica, Momordica charentia, Senna occidentalis, Phyla nodiflora, and Alternanthera caracasana. In District Hafiz Abad, an ICF value for skin diseases of 0.39 was reported by Umair et al., 2017. This is about 50 percent less than the ICF value for skin diseases calculated from our study area, and at 0.84, it is significantly higher than the ICF value for skin diseases in Hafiz Abad. It may be due to that the locals of Tehsil Fort Abbas were not fully informed that various plants could be used to treat skin diseases, leading them to agree on treating skin ailments with only a few plants. The highest ICF value was reported for wound healing at 0.87 (Tufail et al., 2020). A value of 0.78 was calculated for wounds in the current study, which was less than the value from that study. In District Sheikupura, the highest ICF value reported for urinary diseases was 0.82, while the lowest for fever was 0.02. In the current study, the ICF value for urinary issues was 0.83, closely matching the value from the aforementioned study. However, the value for fever was 0.81 in our study, considerably higher in our area, indicating a reduced variety of plants used in fever treatment.

3.4.4 Plant part value (PPV)

In the research region for human ailments, several plant parts were used by locals (either in combination or independently). It was stated that leaves constituted the largest percentage (35 %) of plant parts used to make herbal drugs, followed by the whole plant (25 %), fruit (14 %), roots (8 %), seeds (7 %), flowers (6 %), stem (3 %), bark and rhizome (1 % each). Leaves, which are abundant in bioactive secondary metabolites are frequently employed in herbal treatments (Fig. 4). Aerial parts, bark, branches, stems, latex, and other plant parts were accounted for by less than 5 % of the total plant parts used, with leaves being accounted for by 29 % of the total. Whole plants were followed by 21 %, roots by 13 %, fruit by 8 %, seeds by 6 %, and flowers by 5 %. In the current analysis, 38 % of applications in traditional medicinal formulations were represented by leaves, making them the plant component used most often. The whole plant was followed by 14 %, the root by 10 %, the stem by 8 %, and fruit, seed, and flower by 7 % each. The bark was represented by 5 %, and shoot and rhizome were accounted for by 2 % each. All other plant components were cited by (Umair et al., 2017). However, in the majority of places examined, treatments' composition was primarily constituted by leaves. In our study area, similar findings were observed.

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Fig. 4

Percentage distribution of various plant parts used in ethnomedicinal applications.

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3.4.5 Relative frequency citation (RFC)

In scientific research, the relevance of a specific plant species is determined by RFC values. RFC values ranging from 0.017 to 0.037 are reported (Table 3). The highest RFC value for Centaurium pulchelum (0.037) was reported by respondents in the tehsil Fort Abbas, indicating its significance in the research. This was followed by the RFC values for Xanthium strumarium (0.035), Convolvulus arvensis (0.035), Echinops echintus (0.032), Acyranthes aspera (0.032), Conyza bonariensis (0.032), Dalbergia sisso (0.03) and Dichanthium annulatum (0.028). On the otherhand, plants such as Gisekia pharnaceoides, Lasiurus scindicus and Alternanthera caracasana, which have lower RFC values, were cited less frequently in the research area. The highest RFC values were found for Mentha arvensis (0.88), Berberis lycium (0.86), Achyranthes aspera (0.85), Taraxacum oficinale (0.85), Zanthoxylum alatum (0.82), Pinus roxburghii (0.80), Pyrus malus (0.80), Achillea millefolium (0.77) and Prunus persica (0.77). It was indicated by these high RFC values of these species that they are closely associated with the locals in the research area and are frequently used by them to address various ailments, as reported by Farooq et al., (2019). In Lahore, the highest RFC was attributed to Rosa indica, while the lowest values were associated with Deutzia scabra and Euonymus japonicus, as documented by Shaheen et al., 2014. Plants that were noted to have lower RFC values included Gisekia pharnaceoides, Lasiurus scindicus, and Alternanthera caracasana. Solanum surattense (0.17), Eclipta alba (0.15) and Triticum aestivum (0.15).

3.4.6 Use value (UV) of plant species

Statistical information on the relative importance of plant species, as indicated by residents, is provided by the UV. The species from our study area have use values ranging from 0.16 to 0.5, as shown in Table 3. The highest UV was reported to be for Polygonum plebejum (0.5), Phoenix dactylifera (0.45), Imperata cylindrica (0.45) and Pentatropis spiralis (0.44). Diseases like constipation, asthma, liver disorders and skin issues were treated using these species, and they were also utilized as blood purifiers. Meanwhile, the lowest use values were reported to be for Alhagi maurorum (0.17) and Euphorbia prostrata (0.16). UV is determined by how extensively it is used locally when it is high; conversely, when the value of UV is low, it is less frequently used in specific areas. The highest use value (0.92) was attributed to Allium sativum (Ahmad et al., 2021). It was reported by District Okara, Pakistan that the highest use value for Azadirachta indica was (0.22), whereas the minimum use values of 0.01 were attributed to Alhagi maurorum, Eclipta rostrata and Trianthema potulacastrum (Munir et al., 2022). In our research, a use value of 0.5, the highest for Polygonum plebejum, was identified for conditions like diarrhea, asthma, vomiting, sexual diseases and purifying the blood. In Southern Punjab, Pakistan, the highest use value of 0.58 was reported for Conyza canadensis. An ethnobotanical study in the Bandarban District of Bangladesh was undertaken, revealing that the indigenous tribes' ethnomedicinal use of medicinal plants had Use Values ranging from a high of 0.43 to a low of 0.03 (Faeuque et al., 2018). In the District of Bhimber Azad, Jammu, and Kashmir, Pakistan, use values of 0.40, 0.67, 0.56, 0.42, and 0.56 were reported for Achyranthus aspera, Azadirachta indica, Echinops echinatus, Euphorbia helioscopia and Bauhinia variegata respectively (Majeed et al., 2022).

3.4.7 Relative importance (RI)

The relative importance values ranged from 3.90 to 8.88. The plants species identified as the most important with the highest RI values are Polygonum plebejum (8.88), Momordica charentia (8.66) and Phoenix dactylifera (8.66). Other species with relatively high RI values are Imperata cylindrica (8.56), Xanthium strumarium (7.81), Achyranthes aspera (7.70) and Conyza bonariensis (7.70) which are believed to have a significant ecological impact. However, species with lower RI values, such as Ranunculus sceleratus (4.12), Rumex crispus (4.12) and Lasiurus scindicus (3.90) are considered less significant in terms of ecological impact, but they are nonetheless thought to play a significant role in the indigenous ecosystem (Table 3). The greatest RI was shown by Tabernaemontana divaricata, while the lowest was had by Garcinia aristata (Shaheen et al., 2014). High RI values were also possessed by Curcuma longa (59.72), Elaeagnus angustifolia (63.89) and Matricaria chamomilla (59.72) (Usman et al., 2021). The plants with the highest RI values were reported to be Adhatoda zeylanica (93.75), Zanthoxylum alatum (91.67), Berberis lyceum, Juglans regia (87.50 each), Punica granatum, Olea ferruginea (83.33 each) and Solanum surattense (79.17) (Qaseem et al., 2019). In Harighal, Azad Jammu Kashmir, species' diversity for treating various ailments was evaluated using the relative significance value. The plants found to have the highest RI values were Mimosa pudica (91) and Galium aparine (96) (Amjad et al., 2020). In district Lahore, the greatest RI was shown by Tabernaemontana divaricata, while the lowest by Garcinia aristata. In our study, the highest RI was recorded for Polygonum plebejum (8.88), and the lowest RI value was recorded for Lasiurus scindicus (3.9).

3.4.8 Fidelity Level (FL)

The range of FL values is set from a minimum of 30 % to a maximum of 67 % (Table 3). FL is varied based on the species and also based on the disease, as determined by the responses given by the locals of Tehsil Fort Abbas. The highest FL value was determined to be for Centaurium pulchellum (67 %) for the treatment of jaundice, followed by Euphorbia prostrata (67 %) for the treatment of skin diseases, Dichanthium annulatum (64 %) for diarrhea and Launaea mucronata (62 %) for liver disorders. FL value of 87 % was recorded for Alderia modesta, which was used for toothache and gastric problems (Anwer et al., 2020). Similarly, FL value of 82 % was observed for the Chenopodium album, which was used to treat intestinal issues. In the Chenab riverine area, Pakistan, the highest FL value for curing diabetes was reported to be found for Caralluma tuberculate (61.22 %) and Artemisia scoparia (55.56 %), with both plants being used to lower blood glucose levels (Umair et al., 2017). In the district Sheikupura, Pakistan, FL value of 66.14 % was reported for Solanum americanum (Zahoor et al., 2017). In Southern Punjab, Pakistan, the highest value was reported for Azadirecta indica (93.4 %) which was used for blood purification (Usman et al., 2021). In the current study, an FL value of 40 % was calculated for Azadirecta indica for blood purification purposes. It was shown in the current study that the FL value of this plant was low, indicating that this plant is used less frequently in our area compared to southern Punjab.

3.4.9 Relative popularity Level (RPL)

RPL indices for the 40 most predominant plants belonging to 22 families with high medicinal values in the study area were determined. A value between 0 and 1.0 is assumed by the RPL, with 0 indicating no ailments treated by a plant species and 1.0 indicating full popularity of a plant for significant ailments. RPL values ranging from 0.17 to 0.5 are shown in Table 3. The highest RPL was found to be for Polygonum plebejum (0.5), Phoenix dactylifera (0.45), Imperata cylindrica (0.45), and Pentatropis spiralis (0.44). The lowest use values were reported for Aerva persica (0.18), Alhagi maurorum (0.17), and Euphorbia prostrata (0.16). It is demonstrated that these plants were used for fewer diseases and were not popular. The highest RPL value (1.00) was found for Phyllanthus emblica, Morus macruora, Justicia adhatoda, Melia azedarach and Ajuga bracteosa each. It was proved by this that these plants were the most popular source of TEMs in the study area (Majeed et al., 2022). The most common plant species with a 1.0 RPL value were identified as Solanum surattense, Triticum aestivum, Solanum nigrum, Withania somnifera, Ranunculus sceleratus and Calotropis procera (Umair et al., 2017). The findings of the current study were noted to be different from the previous study because the highest RPL for Polygonum plebejum (0.5) was reported in the current study. In a survey of medicinal plants in the Palestinian territories conducted by Umair et al., (2017), Alhagi maurorum (for urinary disorders) and Tamarix aphylla (for eye disorders) were recognized as unpopular plant species due to their low RPL. In the current research, it was shown that Aerva persica (0.18), Alhagi maurorum (0.17) and Euphorbia prostrata (0.16) were used for fewer diseases and they were found to be unpopular.

3.4.10 Rank order priority (ROP)

The priority values are ranged from 7.23 to 20. The highest priority value of 20 is held by Polygonum plebejum suggesting that it is perceived as the most important or valuable plant while the lowest priority value of 7.23 is held by Alhagi maurorum indicating that it is considered the least important plant (Table 3). Based on the reports from locals, the highest value was given to Polygonum plebejum (20), followed by values given to Pentatropis spiralis (19.5), Phoenix dactylifera (16.3), Imperata cylindrica (16.3), Sonchus asper (16), Bauhinia variegata (16) and Dalbergia sisso (16). In District Hafizabad, the values of different plant species were shown to indicate their medicinal importance and their popularity among the locals (Umair et al., 2017). It was observed that many species had ROP levels greater than 75. The ROP index was utilized to rank plant species with differing FL values. In District Bhimber Azad Jammu and Kashmir, it was reported that the highest ROP value was held by Ranunculus laetus (18) while the lowest ROP value was held by Convolvulus arvensis (0.13). However, in another study, it was reported that Polygonum plebejum (20) had the highest ROP value, with Alhagi maurorum holding the lowest ROP value (Majeed et al., 2022).

3.4.11 Frequency index (FI)

FI value is reported by respondents to range from 1.6 to 3.7. Alhagi maurorum (3.7) has the highest FI value, suggesting that it is the most abundant plant species within the study area. It is also suggested by high FI values of 3.5 that Echinops echinatus, Achyranthes aspera and Setaria viridis are relatively abundant. The lowest value (1.6) is attributed to Launaea mucronata (Table 3). The frequency index of therapeutic plants was calculated during an ethnobotanical survey in Nepal to assess their ethnobotanical usage frequency (Rajbanshi and Thapa, 2019). Ricinus communis was found to have the highest value (86.41), while Citrus limon, Camellia sinensis, Moringa oleifera, Artocarpus lakoocha and Dolichos lablab were all determined to have the lowest values (1.223 each) (Heinrich et al., 2006). A frequency index of 14.81 was recorded for Achyranthes aspera; other species such as Centella asiatica (30.86), Dioscorea bulbifera (74), Mimosa pudica (13.58) and Jatropha curcas (7.40) were also recorded in the study region by Uzun and Koca (2020). The highest FI value was reported for Elephantorrhiza elephantina at 35 in South Africa, while the lowest was reported for Aloe grandidentata at 2 (Mudau et al., 2022). In the present study, the highest FI value was held by Alhagi maurorum at 3.7, suggesting its dominant presence in the study area, whereas the lowest value was attributed to Launaea mucronata at 1.6.

3.4.12 Cultural significance index (CSI)

The CSI values range from 0.47 to 4, with a higher number indicating that the plant is suggested to possess a stronger CSI (Table 3). Plants with a low CSI value, such as Launaea mucronata (0.47), were believed to be associated with low cultural relevance. Plants with a high CSI value, such as Alhagi maurorum (4) and Setaria viridis (3.6), were observed to be connected with significant cultural relevance. According to the data reported by the locals of Tehsil Fort Abbas, the highest cultural significance index value was reported for Alhagi maurorum (4), followed by Setaria viridis (3.6), Achyranthes aspera (3.76), Echinops echinatus (3.76) and Convolvulus arvensis (3.52). In Punjab, Pakistan, it was reported that Triticum aestivum had the highest value of CSI at 8.00, while Lolium temulentum had the lowest CSI value at 0.13 (Majeed et al., 2020). The RFC values of the reported species were found to range from 0.1 to 0.92. The highest RFC (0.92) was attributed to Viola canescens, followed by Mentha arvensis (0.88), Berberis lycium (0.86), Achyranthes aspera (0.85), Taraxacum oficinale (0.85), Zanthoxylum alatum (0.82), Pinus roxburghii (0.80), Pyrus malus (0.80), Achillea millefolium (0.77) and Prunus persica (0.77). In the district Lahore, it was reported by Shaheen et al., 2014 that Rosa indica had the highest RFC value, while the lowest values were observed for Deutzia scabra and Euonymus japonicus. Throughout the study, the highest RFC value of 0.037 was reported for Centaurium pulchelum, while plants with lower RFC values included Gisekia pharnaceoides.

3.4.13 Family use value (FUV)

The highest FUV was found in Areaceae (0.45), followed by Asclepidaceae (0.44) and Brassicaceae (0.4). The lowest FUV was observed in Ranunculaceae, Convolvulaceae, and Mazaceae, each with a value of 0.2 (Table 4). It was observed that families with high FUVs are not necessarily represented by a large number of species in the research area.

The most species were found in Lamiaceae and Asteraceae (12 for each), followed by Cupressaceae (2 species) and Ephedraceae (1 species). The highest FUV was identified in Asteraceae (0.56), Ephedraceae (0.45), Asteraceae (0.36), and Lamiaceae (0.35). According to the current study, the Fabaceae (6 species) were identified as having the most species out of 22 families. However, the highest FUV was possessed by Areaceae (0.45), followed by Asclepiadaceae (0.44) and Brassicaceae (0.4). The potential absence of a large number of species in the research area representing families with high FUVs was indicated by our findings. It was established by Bouafia et al., (2021) that the inclination of the local population to use specific plant families more than others determined the use-value of families.

3.4.14 Preference ranking

Phoenix dactylifera (23) was identified as the most used plant for constipation; for fever, Bauhinia variegate (20) was identified as the most used plant. The plants most commonly used for blood purification were identified as Convolvulus arvensis (21), Dalbergia sisso (21), and Fagonia cretica (21). For liver disorders, the most frequently used plants were, Echinops echinatus (19) and Centaurium pulchelum (19); and for skin diseases, Convolvulus arvensis (21) was identified as the most used plant (Table 5). The highest overall score of 74 in the preference rating among the seven therapeutic plants used to treat high blood pressure was given to Verbascum sinaiticum, (Almeneh, 2021). In the study by Temam et al. (2016), it was stated that the condition most frequently mentioned in the study area was stomach pain. After a preference ranking of six malaria-treating plants, Allium sativum was identified as the most potent medicinal plant for treating malaria. In our research, Phoenix dactylifera was identified as the plant most commonly used for constipation (23), while Bauhinia variegate was identified as the plant used for fever (20). For blood purification, the plants most commonly used were identified as Convolvulus arvensis (21), Dalbergia sisso (21) and Fagonia cretica (21); for liver disorders, it was Echinops echinatus (19); and for skin diseases, Convolvulus arvensis (21) was identified as the most used plant.