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Deciphering of Microbes × Nitrogen source fertilizers Interaction for improving nitrogen use efficiency in spring maize
⁎Corresponding authors. dryaminbibi@uaar.edu.pk (Yamin Bibi), aqayyum@uoh.edu.pk (Abdul Qayyum)
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Received: ,
Accepted: ,
This article was originally published by Elsevier and was migrated to Scientific Scholar after the change of Publisher.
Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.
Abstract
In this study the influence of combined use of organic and inorganic nitrogen (N) sources along with the beneficial micro-organisms on grain N uptake, N use efficiency and N utilization efficiency in maize was evaluated. Organic fertilizer (FYM) and inorganic N source (synthetic fertilizer) was applied in ratio viz. (0:100, 25:75, 50:50, 75:25 and 100:0) with and without beneficial micro-organism. Different levels viz. 100, 150 and 200 kg ha−1 of N was used to accelerate the efficiency of N. Results showed that combination of FYM and inorganic N (50:5) along with the application of beneficial micro-organism significantly increased the total N uptake, N utilization efficiency, highest stover grain and grain protein. However, maximum N uptake and protein contents were recorded with application of 150 kg N ha−1. Application of N (100 kg ha−1) gave the highest N-use efficiency and N utilization efficiency. In conclusion, N application level of 100 kg N ha−1, beneficial micro-organism and 50:50 ratio of inorganic and organic N was proved better in enhancing N-use efficiency and grain quality of maize.
Keywords
Beneficial microbes
Nitrogen
Nitrogen use efficiency
Maize
1 Introduction
Maize (Zea mays L.) is primary cereal playing vital role in meeting food requirement of millions people and act as nutritional source for livestock and provide raw material to industries (Khaliq et al., 2004). Moreover, its grain has high nutritional value as it contains 72%, 10%, 8.5%, 4.8% and 1.7% of starch, proteins, fiber, oil and ash (Chaudhary, 1993). This crop was cultivated on large area (1.32 million ha) in Pakistan with 6.31 million tons total production. Whereas in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa the total production of maize was 0.89 million tons produced from 0.47 million ha area with average yield 1943 kg ha−1 (GOP (Government of Pakistan), 2020).
In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa the productivity of maize is low because of untimely nutrients availability, imbalance input application and poor soil fertility. Over the last decades, exhaustive agricultural practices adversely affected the agricultural environment due to soil erosion and decreasing soil organic matter (SOM). Therefore, improving soil health is critical for the environmental quality and to increase crop yield on sustainable basis. Adoption of sustainable cropping pattern is crucial for economic, environmental and agronomic aspects (Zhao et al., 2009). The deteriorating sustainability regarding soil fertility and yield demand the new approaches such as application of farm yard manure (FYM) in combination with synthetic fertilizers. To minimize the negative effects on agriculture production system sustainable practices such as balanced fertilizers application are required to adopt (Bilalis et al., 2009). The main purpose of nutrients application is to increase the level of soil fertility and crop yield to fulfill the food requirement. The soils of Pakistan are low in organic matter and primary nutrients including N, phosphorus (P) (Ali et al., 2011).
Integration of synthetic and organic fertilizers helps to improve the soil structure by increasing water holding ability, total porosity and nutrients pool (Shaaban, 2006). Application of manures increases the concentration and availability of nutrients ultimately resulting in better soil structure and fertility (David et al., 2005). The use of microbes in crop growth favors the improvement in yield quality and production. In maize crop time and rate of nutrients application greatly affect the yield potential of hybrid and the basic goal of fertilizer management is to increase its use efficiency by reducing the losses. The uptake efficiency of N can be improved by increasing its recovery and minimizing losses occur through volatilization, leaching, and denitrification (Wortmann et al., 2011).
Globally, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in maize is approximately 33% and most of its concentration reach the beyond the rhizosphere due to volatilization and leaching (Sindelar et al., 2015). Accumulation of N in plant parts occur during particularly vegetative stage based on the N concentration in soil. In maize one half of N uptake at time when crop attain maximum one fourth of biomass (Abendroth et al., 2011). Thus, uniformity between nutrient application and its uptake decrease the total fertilizer while improving yield and NUE (Venterea et al., 2012). Different characteristics of soil are crucial to determine the accurate fertilizer amount to deliver. Thus, N is the essential element because of its significant effect on biota in root zone and plant water relations.
There are different pathways through which N lost from agricultural cropping systems and environment. Therefore, one of the balanced approach is to improve N use efficiency by applying N through different sources (organic and inorganic) along with the microbial application. Therefore, the specific objective of this study was to investigate the influence of integrated application of N application (applied through inorganic and organic sources) with the combination of microbes application on the grain N uptake, total N uptake and N use efficiencies.
2 Materisld and methods
2.1 Site and soil
Two year (2014 and 2015) experiments were carried out at Agronomic Research Farm, University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan (latitude 34.015° N and longitude 71.581°E, asl 331 m). Experimental soil was well-drained and silt-loam in texture. The climate of experimental area was semi-arid with 450 mm annual rainfall (mean). Soil physico-chemical properties of experimental site are given in Table 1a. The data of temperature and rainfall obtained is presented in Fig. 1.
Texture
Silty loam
pH
7.60
EC (d Sm-1)
0.18
Total nitrogen (%)
0.07
Phosphorus (ppm)
3.21
Potassium (ppm)
122.00
Organic matter (%)
0.46
Maximum temperature (°C), minimum temperature (°C) and total monthly rainfall (mm) of study area.
2.2 Experimental design, treatment combination and field preparation
The experiment was laid in randomized complete block design (RCBD) having 3 replications. Plot size 4.2 × 4 m2 was maintained with 6 rows. Row to row (70 cm) and plant to plant (20 cm) distance was maintained. Total 93 plots were made with treatment combination including levels of beneficial micro-organisms (BM) (i) with BM, and (ii) without BM, three N levels viz. 100, 150 and 200 kg N ha−1 and five inorganic and organic N ratios viz. 0:100, 25:75, 50:50, 75:25 and 100:0. There was one control treatment in each replicate.
The BM culture is commercially called as effective micro-organisms (EM) Bioaab and it was collected from Nature Farming Research and Development Foundation, Faisalabad-Pakistan. There was rich population of Azotobacter (1 × 1011 cfu mL−1) and Azospirrilum (1 × 106 cfu mL−1). Tap water was used to dilute stock solution to formulate solution of 0.2% which was immediately used. Fifteen days before and after sowing 0.2% diluted solution was used to irrigate plots with EM/BM treatment. Thereby, respective plot was delivered with 5 L (diluted EM solution) twice.
Before planting maize stale-seedbed technique was used for effective weeds management. Two weeks before maize plantation, FYM (six months decomposed) was soil incorporated as organic N source. As an inorganic N source, ammonium nitrate was used which was delivered in splits; half quantity while preparing seedbed and remaining at V3 stage (three-leaf). Chemical properties of FYM composite samples are given in Table 1b. BM solution (50 mL) was obtained and diluted using 5 L water. This prepared solution was applied on BM treatments in sprinkle form (using sprinkler) when crop achieved two-leaf stage (V2). Phosphorus and potassium were applied before sowing at recommended rate 90 kg ha−1 and 60 kg ha−1. For other agronomic management (weeding, hoeing, and irrigation) recommended procedures were followed. Sowing of maize was done on March 1st and March 16th in 2014 and 2015, respectively and manually harvested on June 29th, 2014 and July 15, 2015.
pH
7.81
Organic carbon (g kg−1)
252.50
Nitrogen (%)
0.65
Phosphorus (%)
0.52
Potassium (%)
0.29
Extractable Cu (ppm)
0.70
Exchangeable Mg (ppm)
2.64
Extractable Zn (ppm)
131
Exchangeable Na (ppm)
5.64
Extractable Fe (ppm)
5.09
Exchangeable Ca (ppm)
11.18
Extractable Mn (ppm)
7.02
2.3 Data recording
After harvesting the data regarding grain N uptake, grain protein contents, N utilization efficiency and stover N uptake was recorded following the recommended methods. The methods of determination of parameters are given below
Determination of grain N uptake (GNU) was done following the method
Calculation of stover N uptake (SNU) was performed according to the formulae
Determination of total N uptake (TNU) was done according to below given formulae
NUE was calculated using formulae
N utilization efficiency (NUtE) was determined with formulae
2.4 Statistical analysis
Collected data was statistically analysis by using fisher analysis of variance technique with Statistix 8.1 software. Whereas, treatments comparison was performed using least significant difference (LSD) test at 5% probability level (Steel et al., 1996).
3 Results
3.1 Grain protein content
Results of two years study revealed significant differences in protein content of grains among both years (Table 2). In 2015, protein content was higher (7.81%) recorded as compared with the year 2014 (7.25%). Beneficial microbes have astounding effects on protein contents of grains. Significantly higher protein content (10.23%) were noted where beneficial microbes were applied than control (no treatment) (9.86%). Similarly, application of N through inorganic and organic sources highly affected protein contents of grains. Nitrogen application (50:50 – organic, inorganic sources) increased protein contents (10.5%) than N applied (75:25 – organic, inorganic sources) (10.36%). Different levels of N greatly affected the protein content, nonetheless N application (200 kg N ha−1) improved protein contents (10.33 %) compared with (150 kg N ha−1) (10.19%). Considerably, lower protein content was recorded (5.01 %) with control treatment. Interaction for protein content among beneficial microbes, organic and inorganic nitrogen application (BM × R) and (BM × R × N) was significant. However, interaction among BM × R showed that increasing the level of organic N @ 50 % augmented the protein content with beneficial microbes and organic N @ 75 % increased protein content without beneficial microbes (Fig. 2a). Interaction among BM × R × N revealed that rising the organic N @ 50 % with beneficial microbes augmented the protein content but increment was higher with the application of N @ 200 kg N ha−1 (Fig. 2b).
Treatment
Protein Content of Grain (%)
Nitrogen Uptake by Stover (kg ha−1)
Nitrogen Uptake by Grain (kg ha−1)
Beneficial Microbes (BM)
BM
10.23 a
76.31 a
89.84 a
BM (0)
9.86b
69.75b
73.83b
Probability
0.012
0.005
0.000
Organic and Inorganic Nitrogen % (R)
0:100
9.89b
64.11c
69.80 d
25:75
9.57b
68.74 bc
79.63c
50:50
10.50 a
81.06 a
97.17 a
75:25
10.36 a
78.23 ab
85.16b
100:0
9.90b
73.01b
77.43c
LSD(0.05)
0.46
7.11
5.28
Nitrogen Levels (N) (kg ha−1)
100
9.62b
49.05c
72.07b
150
10.19 a
76.91b
85.82 a
200
10.33 a
93.13 a
87.63 a
LSD(0.05)
0.35
5.51
4.09
Planned Mean Comparison
Control
5.01b
25.96b
26.24b
Rest
10.05 a
73.03 a
81.84 a
Probability
Years
2014
7.25b
45.12b
48.74b
2015
7.81 a
53.88 a
59.34 a
Interaction between BM × R (a) and BM × R × N (b) for protein content (%) of spring maize. Means data of three replicates with standard deviations presented by vertical bars.
3.2 Stover nitrogen uptake
Two years study depicted significant differences for the uptake of nitrogen by stover of spring maize (Table 2). In 2015, significant higher uptake of nitrogen by stover (53.88 kg ha−1) was recorded in comparison with 2014 (45.12 kg ha−1) respectively. Treatment of beneficial microbes greatly augmented the nitrogen uptake by stover (76.31 kg ha−1) as compared with no application of microbes (69.75 kg ha−1). Various proportions of organic and inorganic nitrogen also greatly affected the nitrogen uptake by stover of maize. Higher nitrogen uptake by stover was recorded (81.06 kg ha−1) @ of 50:50 N. The effect of different N levels was also significantly affected the uptake of N (Fig. 3a). Increasing the levels of nitrogen increased the nitrogen uptake by stover of maize. Comparative effect of treated plots depicted significantly higher uptake of nitrogen (73.03 kg ha−1) as compared with control plots (25.96 kg ha−1). Interaction between R × N and BM × R × N significantly affected the SNU of maize. However, interaction among R × N depicted that organic N @ 50 % improved the nitrogen uptake with 150 kg N ha−1, however nitrogen content of stover was elevated with organic nitrogen @75 % with 200 kg N ha−1 and 100 kg N ha−1. Interaction among BM × R × N affirmed that application of organic N upto 50 % increased the N content of stover with the treatment of microbes @ 150 and 200 kg N ha−1. Whereas, treatment of organic nitrogen @ 100 kg ha−1 with beneficial microbes increased the N content of stover linearly (Fig. 3b).
Interaction of R × N (a) and BM × R × N (b) for uptake of nitrogen (kg ha−1) by stover of spring maize. Means data of three replicates with standard deviations represented with vertical bars.
3.3 Uptake of nitrogen by grains of maize
Results related to nitrogen uptake by grains depicted significantly differences among both the years (Table 2). In 2015, higher nitrogen uptake (59.34 kg ha−1) was recorded as compared with 2014 (48.74 kg ha−1). In the presence of beneficial microbes, significantly higher content of nitrogen (89.84 kg ha−1) was recorded in comparison with the absence of beneficial microbes (73.83 kg ha−1). The proportion of organic and inorganic nitrogen also greatly affected the nitrogen uptake by grains of maize. However, maximum and higher GNU (97.17 kg ha−1) was analyzed with the treatment of N @ 50:50 while least (69.80 kg ha−1) were recorded with inorganic N only. Application of 200 kg N ha−1 increased the GNU (87.63 kg ha−1) in comparison with 150 kg N ha−1 (85.82 kg ha−1). Treated plots had significantly higher GNU (81.84 kg ha−1) as compared with control plots (26.24 kg ha−1). Interaction between different factors such as BM × R, BM × N and BM × R × N was found significantly for grains nitrogen uptake of maize. Interaction between BM × R depicted that with the increment of organic N ratios up to 50 % enhanced the nitrogen uptake by grains in the presence of microbes however further increment in N reduced the GNU of maize (Fig. 4a). Interaction among BM × N showed that GNU increased with the increase of N linearly in the presence of beneficial microbes (Fig. 4b). Interaction between three factors BM × R × N revealed that GNU was increased with the increment of N ratio upto 50% in the presence of beneficial microbes while GNU was recorded higher @ 150 and 200 kg N ha−1 (Fig. 4c).
Interaction among BM × R (a); BM × N (b) and BM × R × N (c) for uptake of nitrogen (kg ha−1) of grains of spring maize. Mean data of three replicates are presented with standard deviations with vertical bars.
3.4 Total nitrogen uptake
Data presented in Table 3 depicted significant differences among the total nitrogen uptake of maize during 2014 and 2015. Total nitrogen uptake was significantly higher (104.78 kg ha−1) during the year 2015 as compared with 2014 where low TNU (96.02 kg ha−1) was recorded. Addition of beneficial microbes significantly increased total nitrogen uptake (127.22 kg ha−1). Whereas proportions of organic and inorganic N significantly increased the total uptake of nitrogen by maize. Total nitrogen uptake (131.96 kg ha−1) was higher recorded with the ratios of 50:50 of organic and inorganic N sources however lower TNU (115.01 kg ha−1) was recorded with inorganic N only. Various levels of nitrogen greatly affected the TNU and maximum nitrogen uptake (144.03 kg ha−1) was recorded with the application of 200 kg ha−1. Control plots revealed minimum TNU (76.87 kg ha−1) as compared with treated plots. Interaction between R × N and BM × R × N was also found significantly for total nitrogen uptake. Interaction among R × N depicted that increment in the ratio of N upto 50 % enhanced the TNU @ 150 and 200 kg N ha−1, while increment in organic ratio of N @100 kg increased linearly in TNU of maize (Fig. 5a). Interaction between BM × R × N showed that application of nitrogen @ 200 kg ha−1 in 50:50 enhanced total nitrogen uptake with microbes whereas in the absence of microbes TNU was reduced with 150 and 200 kg N ha−1 respectively (Fig. 5b).
Treatment
Total Nitrogen Uptake (kg ha−1)
Nitrogen Use Efficiency (%)
Nitrogen Utilization Efficiency (%)
Beneficial Microbes (BM)
With BM
127.22
24.50 a
43.93 a
Without BM
120.65
21.25b
40.59b
Probability
0.005
0.000
0.005
Organic and Inorganic N Proportions (R)
0:100
115.01c
19.97 d
39.56c
25:75
119.65 bc
23.35b
44.18 ab
50:50
131.96 a
25.92 a
46.04 a
75:25
129.13 ab
23.08 bc
41.38b
100:0
123.92b
22.04c
40.15 bc
LSD(0.05)
7.11
1.12
3.66
Nitrogen (kg ha−1)
100
99.96c
26.13 a
47.68 a
150
127.82b
23.30b
42.07b
200
144.03 a
19.19c
37.04c
LSD(0.05)
5.51
0.87
2.84
Planned Mean Comparison
Control
76.87b
42.79 a
42.79
Rest
123.94 a
22.87b
42.26
Probability
Years
2014
96.02b
31.16b
41.43b
2015
104.78 a
34.5 a
43.62 a
Interaction among R × N (a) and BM × R × N (b) for total nitrogen uptake (kg ha−1) of spring maize. Mean data of three replicates is presented with standard deviations by vertical bars.
3.5 Nitrogen use efficiency
Results of experiments of both years eastablished the significant differences among various treatments on nitrogen use efficiency of spring maize (Table 3). In 2015, NUE was higher (34.50 kg grains kg-1N supply) as compared with (31.16 kg grains kg-1N supply) in 2014. Nitrogen use efficiency (24.50 kg grains kg-1N supply) of maize was greatly affected with beneficial microbes. Significantly higher NUE (25.92 kg grains kg-1N supply) was recorded with the treatment of ratio of organic and inorganic N @ 50:50 whereas lower (19.97 kg grains kg-1N supply) was obtained in the plots with inorganic nitrogen only. Various levels of nitrogen.
Increased NUE and maximum (26.13 kg grains kg-1N supply) was recorded with application of 100 kg N ha−1 and NUE decreased with further increment in levels of nitrogen. Interaction for NUE among BM × R and R × N was significant. However interaction among BM × R depicted that increment in organic N ratio at 50% augmented NUE despite the treatment of microbes, however increment was greater with the treatment of microbes (Fig. 6a). Interaction among R × N showed that increase in the ratio of organic N till 50 % @ (100, 150 and 200 kg ha−1) augmented the NUE whereas increment in ratio of N decreased NUE (Fig. 6b).
Interaction between BM × R (a) and R × N (b) for nitrogen use efficiency of spring maize. Mean data of three replicates is presented with standard deviations by vertical bars.
3.6 Nitrogen utilization efficiency
The year effect was found insignificant for nitrogen utilization efficiency (NUtE) of maize (Table 3). The beneficial microbes significantly exaggerated the NUtE of spring maize and NUtE was maximum (43.93) with beneficial microbes. Various proportions of organic and inorganic nitrogen greatly affected NUtE and greater NUtE (46.04) was found with the treatment of N (50:50 ratio) of organic and inorganic nitrogen, whereas NUtE was analyzed lower (39.56) in the plots treated with inorganic nitrogen only. Various treatments of N greatly affected the NUtE and maximum NUtE (47.68) was found with 100 kg N ha−1 and NUtE decreased linearly with increment in N ratios. Comparison between control vs rest was found non-significant for NUtE. Interaction between BM × R, BM × N and R × N were found greater for NUtE. The BM × R interaction showed that mounting organic N ratio up to 50% increased NUtE in spite of beneficial microbes. Further increment in organic nitrogen up to 75% enhanced NUtE with beneficial microbes and decreased NUtE without beneficial microbes, whereas decline was greater without beneficial microbes (Fig. 7a). Interaction of BM × N showed that increment in N level reduced the NUtE despite of beneficial microbes, however the decline was greater without beneficial microbes (Fig. 7b). The R × N interaction showed that augmenting the ratio of organic N up to 50% enhanced the NUtE, while further increasing the organic ratio of N reduced the NUtE at all three level of N, however increment in NUtE was gretaer @ 100 kg ha−1 (Fig. 7c).
Interaction among BM × R (a); BM × N (b); and R × N for nitrogen utilization efficiency of spring maize. Mean data of three replicates with standard deviations depicted through vertical bars.
4 Discussion
Nitrogen is the most limiting factor for crop growth and development. Nitrogen management is a very exigent task and numerous methods have been used to increase its efficiency. However, improvement in nitrogen use efficiency is still needed. Protein contents of grains, nitrogen uptake by stover and grain, nitrogen use efficiency and nitrogen utilization efficiency was found lower in comparison with 2nd year, it may be due to more nutrients were available due to residual effects of treatments in 1st year.
Nutrient uptake efficiency increased in plants due to induced changes in mode of action of plants by beneficial microbes (Sangakkara et al., 1998). Nutrient uptake, shoot nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium contents increased under mineral and beneficial microbes amended soil by cereal crops (Khaliq et al., 2006). It has been reported that treatment of beneficial microbes astoundingly increased macro and micro nutrients such as N, P, K, Fe, Mn and Zn and also nutrient content in leaves (Gorski and Kleiber, 2010). Similar findings have been reported due to appliance of beneficial microorganism in cotton with increased nutrient contents in leaves (Khaliq et al., 2006). Nitrogen uptake by plants is highly inclined through rate and split application (Rahman et al., 2011). Nitrogen availability between flag leaf and milking stage enabled plants to build up greater amount of nitrogen in grains. Appliance of nitrogen at anthesis in late spring season is highly useful in increasing protein contents of grains (Jama and Ottman, 1993). Foliar application of urea with high level of N concentration from 2 to 10% increased absorption of NH4+ (Altman et al., 1983). It has been reported that foliar appliance of urea enhanced nitrogen concentration in leaves of wheat (Vagen, 2003). Many scientists reported that application of urea in soil as well as foliar appliance increased nitrogen uptake in plants (Abad et al., 2004). Ever increasing nitrogen application enhanced the nitrogen uptake and contents in plants (Mattas et al., 2011). Presence of higher nitrogen contents in grains in response to better N application may be linked with mineralization-immobilization turnover (Strong and Bacon, 1995), as a result in higher nitrogen loses through immobilization in low level of nitrogen. The other probable cause is the better mineralization of organic matter (Aulakh et al., 2000) to available nitrogen resulted ultimately in nitrogen uptake in straw and grains. Rising rate of nitrogen improved the uptake of nitrogen (Fan et al., 2005) might be associated with increased availability of nitrogen owing to release of nitrogen from organic source (Shah and Ahmad, 2006). Higher rate of mineralization of FYM increased uptake of nitrogen, which may be reduced nitrogen losses with denitrification or immobilization in organic forms (Wells and Bitzer, 1984) found in plots with N and FYM. These results were in line with the findings of Russell and Olson (Russelle and Olson, 1983) reported that augmented efficiency of nitrogen from belated applications or mineralization. Plant species and soil factors highly influenced on increased uptake efficiency of nitrogen might be helpful in improved mineralization of manures to fulfill the demand of crop plants. Presence of higher nitrogen in the soil increased nitrogen uptake by plants (Mercedes et al., 1993). Appliance of organic nitrogen and urea increased the availability of nitrogen, resulted in enhanced uptake of nitrogen (Dhillon et al., 1998). Results of our experiment are in accordance with the findings of Parmar and Sharma (Parmar and Sharma, 2001), who accomplished that absorbance of nitrogen by wheat enhanced with increasing level of N and FYM. Integration of farm yard manure and nitrogen application increased grain protein as compared with control or FYM alone. Fertilization with nitrogen increased photosynthetic activity, therefore enhanced protein content of grains (Lopez-Bellido et al., 1998) and quality of grains. Soil applied nitrogen might be increased protein content of grains (Rathi and Singh, 1973). Soil nitrogen content increased uptake by plants resulted in higher protein content (Brejda et al., 1995). Amalgamation of nitrogen in soil increased accumulation and enhanced protein contents of grains (Pedersen and Jorgensen, 2007). Concentration of crude protein differ with moment (Muir, 2006) therefore, late application of nitrogen enhanced protein 12% without losses in yield from excessive nitrogen (Brown and Petrie, 2006). Excess mineralization in fertilized soil (Soon et al., 2001) increased N in the soil resulted in higher grain protein content. The process of mineralization of nitrogen should be constant with the better organic N, mineralizable nitrogen and recycling of nitrogen (Doran, 1987).
5 Conclusion
Beneficial microorganism and application of organic and inorganic N fertilizers @ 50:50 ratios increased the protein content of grains and stover, total uptake of nitrogen, nitrogen use and utilization efficiency. Protein content, grain nitrogen uptake was better with application of 150 kg N ha−1 while stover and total uptake was improved with appliance of 200 kg N ha−1 and nitrogen use efficiency and utilization efficiency was better in 100 kg N ha−1.
Acknowledgment:
The authors extend their appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2023R56), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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