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Aseismic and seismic impact on development of soft-sediment deformation structures in deep-marine sand-shaly Crocker fan in Sabah, NW Borneo
⁎Corresponding authors at: Department of Geosciences, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar, 32610 Perak, Malaysia. jamil287@gmail.com (Muhammad Jamil), numair.siddiqui@utp.edu.my (Numair Ahmed Siddiqui)
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Received: ,
Accepted: ,
This article was originally published by Elsevier and was migrated to Scientific Scholar after the change of Publisher.
Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.
Abstract
Abstract
Soft-sediment deformation structures are present within the deep-marine fan of the West Crocker Formation, Sabah Basin, NW Borneo. Focus of this study is to highlight the impact of seismic and aseismic activities on the development of these structures and their distribution in deep-marine fan. Twenty-nine types of deformation structures were identified during the study of twelve exposed sections. These structures were grouped into five categories: i) water-escape structures, ii) sole marks, iii) clastic intrusions, iv) deformed laminations, and v) syn-depositional brittle and ductile deformation structures. The sediment deformation is interpreted to be caused either by aseismic processes like slope failure, gravity collapse, sediment overloading, density gradient, seismic induced mechanisms such as earthquakes, tectonic uplift, or combined effect of seismic and aseismic events. These structures are classified based on type of features developed during semi-consolidated phase of rock deposition. The seismite structures i.e., clastic intrusions, deformed laminations, and syn-depositional structures are correlated with active collisional tectonics during the Late Paleogene times in the Sabah Basin. In the present work, a generalized conceptual model has also been proposed for the development of soft-sediment deformation structures in a submarine fan environment. Dewatering structurers and rapid sedimentation features are associated with inner fan, load and flame structures are present within middle fan, while contorted layers, slumps and mass-transport deposits are linked with distal fan settings.
Keywords
Soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDSs)
Deep-marine sand-shaly fan
Seismites
West Crocker Formation
Sabah Basin
NW Borneo
1 Introduction
Genetic mechanisms and morphological characterization of sedimentary structures are vital for understanding of geological history and depositional processes active in a sedimentary basin (Liu et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2020). In siliciclastic rocks, soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDSs) are developed during or earlier phase of rock deposition, mostly in semi-consolidated phase of sediments prior to diagenesis. This deformation is also termed as penecontemporaneous or pre-lithification deformation (Owen et al., 2011). Fluidization and liquefaction phenomena contribute significantly to the development of SSDSs. However, a clear understanding, exact origin, and timing of development of sediment deformation structures are still ambiguous (Al-Mufti and Arnott, 2020).
Various geological events like tsunamis, storm waves, and earthquakes (Moretti and Sabato, 2007) are responsible for the development of SSDSs. The factors that determine the development of soft-sedimentary structures are consolidation, saturation level, type of lithology, depth of sediment accumulation, intensity and epicenter of earthquakes (Liu et al., 2016). These SSDSs are also termed as seismites when triggered by the seismic activity (Singh and Jain, 2007). By using the deep-marine Crocker Formation of Sabah Basin as a case study (Fig. 1a,b), this research aims to characterize the occurrence of SSDSs, their spatial distribution in various architectural elements of a submarine fan, and relationship of seismites with collisional tectonic regime of the Sabah Basin during the Late Paleogene times.
Location of study area. a) regional map of NW Borneo with encircled Sabah area. b) location of twelve outcrops 1 to 4 in NW Sabah, locations 5–8 in West Sabah and 9–12 in SW Sabah. c) stratigraphy of the West Sabah.
2 Geological background
Deep-marine sediments of the Late Paleogene age are extensively outcropped in the West Sabah which are generally termed as Crocker sands because of dominant sandstone lithology (Jackson et al., 2009; Zakaria et al., 2013; Sheikh et al., 2021). The younger sediments are termed as Late Paleogene Crocker sediments to differentiate them from Early Paleogene Rajang Group (comprising of Trusmadi and East Crocker formations (Fig. 1c) (Abdullah et al., 2017). Hence, the term West Crocker Formation is now restricted to only those Late Paleogene sediments which are bounded by unconformable stratigraphic surfaces (Jamil et al., 2019, 2020).
Regionally, Borneo has a complex history of sedimentation and tectonics that resulted in the development of massive accumulation of deep-marine sediments during the Early Cenozoic era. (Mathew et al., 2014; Siddiqui et al., 2019; Usman et al., 2020; Ahmed et al., 2021a, 2021b). Sabah Basin is located in northern part of the Borneo that lies at complex junction of the South China Sea in the West, Celeb Sea in the SE, and Sulu Sea in the NE (Siddiqui et al., 2017, 2020; Usman et al., 2021). Previously, few sedimentary structures like flute marks, cross-bedding, convolution, parallel laminations, sand injectites and dish structures had been reported in this formation (Jackson et al., 2009; Zakaria et al., 2013; Madon, 2020; Jamil et al., 2021).
3 Data and methods
The geological field locations are mainly affected by compressional tectonic regime which is evident from vertically oriented stratigraphic sections. The transect selected for detailed sedimentary logging with deformation structures extends from NW Sabah (location 1: Jalan Sulaman near Telipok) to SW Sabah (location 12: Kawang) which is about 47.6 km in length along the Pan-Borneo Highway, Sabah (Fig. 2). Cumulative vertical thickness of all field logs for these exposed sections is about 877.40 m. Generally, this stratigraphic formation was deposited in deep-marine environment therefore most of the sandtone beds are structureless and do not bear any deformation structures. However, SSDSs were marked, located, and identified at several stratigraphic intervals in the geological field (Fig. 2). These sedimentary features were later interpreted in the light of previous literature to determine the geological processes active during the deposition in the respective sedimentary basin.
Distribution of SSDSs in twelve exposed sections, four from NW Sabah (1.SUL Jalan Sulaman section, 2.LPS Lapasan road section 3.UU University Utama section 4.SP Sepangger road section), four locations around Kota Kinabalu (5.JS Jalan UMS road section, 6.JK Jalan UMS behind KFC section, 7.JBN Jalan Bantayan section, 8.KM Kampung Madpai section), and four sections in SW Sabah (9.JLK Jalan Lok Kawi section, 10.MK Kampung Mook section, 11.LKW Lok Kawi wildlife road section 12.KWN Kawang section).
4 Results and interpretation
Twenty-nine types of SSDSs were identified which were broadly categorized into five major seismic and aseismic deformation structures in a deep-marine environment (Table 1). The sedimentary structures discussed in this study were identified at several stratigraphic levels within the West Crocker Formation. These features are classified based on geological processes responsible for the development of deformation structures including dewatering, overloading, intrusion, syn-depositional brittle, and ductile deformation structures.
No.
Types of SSDSs
Description
Type of groups
Figure
Processes
Mechanisms
1
Dish structures
Dewatering structures
3a, 3b
abrupt overpressure
Seismic or rapid sedimentation
2
Water-escape cusp
3c
flow pathways in fluidized sediments
Influence of pore pressure
3
Developed mud flames
Sole marks and flame structures
3d-3g
shale penetrates sand base
Reverse density gradient or seismic shock
4
Slight flame strcuture
3h
density contrast allows mud to move upward
Compensate sand pressure on mud
5
Load casts
4a
uneven loading
Gravitational instabilities, seismic origin
6
Pseudonodule
4b
heavier material sinks into mud
Sediment loading
7
Flute casts
4c
density loading
Erosional currents
8
Tool marks
4d
sagging, sand over mud drag
Density gradient
9
Detach sandnodule
4e
uneven loading
Dense sand nodules sink into mud
10
Ball and pillow
4f
disturbed sand base moves down into mud
Reverse density gradient, seismic activity
11
Sill ± faults
Clastic intrusions
5a-c, 5e
intrusion and displacement
Seismic or tectonics
12
Mud sill with dyke
5d
intrusion with variable stress directions
Co-seismic liquefaction
13
Minor mud dykes
5f
upward bedding of mud layer
Co-seismic liquefaction
14
Large mud dykes
5g
vertical injections
Seismic activity
15
Overturned convolution
Defromed laminations
6a
deformed laminae with broad hinge
Overloading or rapid sedimentation
16
Multiple convolution
6b, 6c
amalgamated sand overlain small structures
Differential liquefaction
17
Chaotic convolution
6d
convolution associated with silt unit
Gravitational movement
18
Convolution with mud
6e
crumpling of silty laminations
Differential liquefaction
19
Multiple laminites
6f
lamiantions are slightly bended
Ductile laminae deformation
20
Disturbed laminites
6g
small-scale overloading
Injection with slight bending
21
Multiple syn-sedimentary faults
Syn-depositional structural deformation
7a, 7b
array of faults due to continuous stress
Tectonic or seismic shocks
22
Syn-sedimentary fault
7c, 7d
localized stress
Seismic event or other short-lived mechanism
23
Syn-sedimentary fold
7e
ductile deformation phase
Compressional phenomenon
24
Syn-sedimentray fault and fold
7f, 7g
brittle and ductile deformation
Differential stress behaviour
25
Syn-sedimentary Fault propagation fold
7h
initially folding and later faulting
Convergent tectonic mechanism
26
Contorted layers
8a, 8d
individual lamina differentially deform
Seismic episodes
27
Chaotic slumping
8b, 8c
deformed Silty mud incorporate into sand
Minor chaotic event
28
Slump with sand clasts
8e, 8f
rotational component in chaos
Gravitational collapse
29
Mass-transport complex
8g, 8h
complex orientation of lithology
Slope failure, gravitational collapse
4.1 Water-escape structures
4.1.1 Dish structures
Small saucers (dishes), which are sometimes separated by vertical columns, represent the escape of pore-water in an upward direction during lithification of sediments. The size of dishes vary from 1 to 3 cm and morphology is mainly concave up structures in an undulated linear fashion. These structures are rare in NW and SW Sabah, but they are abundant in the West Sabah. The sandstone units in the West Sabah are relatively clean therefore, these structures are faint. Generally, the dewatering structures are common in thick to massive muddy sandstones (Fig. 3a). Few examples of dish structures have also been identified at Jalan UMS behind KFC (JK) section, West Sabah (Fig. 3b), which are interpreted to be deformed by earthquakes (Zeng et al., 2018).
Dewatering and flame structures a) dewatering columns in massive sandstone. b) dish structures in sandstone with mud laminae. c) water-escape cusp in massive sandstone. d) developed flame structure at the base of overlying sand beds. e) silty mud flame developed in between sand bed. f) axe-shaped flame structure bounded by two sandstone intervals. g) wedge-shaped flame structure developed by underlying mud unit. h) slight effect of flame by thin mud unit into overlying sand bed.
4.1.2 Water-escape cusp
Cusp mainly occur in between two coarsening up sandstone units when the sediments are still in phase of fluidization (Owen, 1996). They are columnar generally vertical and similar in shape like the flame structure (Ali and Ahmad Ali, 2018). The zone of cusp structures ranges from 4 to 7 cm and width from 1 to 11 cm (Fig. 3c). These cusp structures are relatively less common as compared to traditional dish structures in the study area. In general, the seismic impact or abrupt overpressure resulted in the movement of water from unlithified sediments and consequently develops water-escape structures (Owen, 1996).
4.2 Sole marks
4.2.1 Flame structures
Flame structures are usually developed in shaly unit overlying sandstone, or in muddy sandstone overlying clean sandstone unit. The mud flames are equally developed in shale laminae (Fig. 3d) bounded by sandstone intervals. However, the morphology of flame is like mud injection in rare cases (Fig. 3e), axe-shaped (Fig. 3f) or linear wedge structure (Fig. 3g). Sometimes the flame structure is less developed due to very thin mud lamina and is termed as slight flame expression (Fig. 3h). The flame dimensions vary in size from less than 1 cm (Fig. 3h) to more 5 cm in flame height (Fig. 3g). The triggering process for development of flame include gravity loading (Ge and Zhong, 2018), or seismic shear (Zeng et al., 2018).
4.2.2 Load structures
Deep-marine deposits with alternate sand-shale lithology (competence contrast) are often characterized by load structures. The range of deformation varies significantly where lateral continuity of these load structures is limited, and they are developed in form of symmetrical spheres as well as asymmetrical geometries (Fig. 4a, 4b). Brief expressions of flute casts (Fig. 4c) and tool marks (Fig. 4d) are present in the West Sabah interpreting the deformation associated with drag movement of sediments during the high-density cohesive gravity flow (Peakall et al., 2020).
Sole marks and load structures. a) load casts at the base of sandstone unit. b) Pseudonodules developed due to sediment loading. c) flute casts representing the effect of erosional currents. d) tool marks at the base of sandstone. e) undulated sandstone base and detached nodules due to sinking of dense sandstone into underlying shale unit. f) ball and pillow structure formed at base of sandstone.
4.2.3 Pseudonodules
Variable shapes and morphologies of detached and isolated nodules are entrenched in an underlying lithology (Fig. 4e) having density contrast are termed as pseudonodules (Ali and Ahmad Ali, 2018). The diameter of irregular spheroidal morphologies varies from 3 to 9 cm while the long axes vary from 8 to 14 cm and short axes from 4 to 9 cm. These pseudonodules are interpreted to be the result of sediment loading of more dense sand in underlying shale interval (Rodrı́guez-Pascua et al., 2000).
4.2.4 Ball and pillow structures
The sandstone layer is divided into many concentric pillows which are nearly spherical or ellipsoidal. These individual plano-convex pillow shapes can either be isolated masses or partially connected (McLaughlin and Brett, 2004). The diameter of pillows varies from 8 to 23 cm, while the ball diameter ranges only from 4 to 11 cm (Fig. 4f). Ball and pillow structures are formed by reverse density gradient as well as seismic impact on semi-consolidated sediments (Obermeier, 1996).
4.3 Soft-sediment intrusions
4.3.1 Clastic sills
Bedding parallel mud intrusions are present in various forms where the width of mud sill is less than 1 cm, but the length is more than 40 cm (Fig. 5a, b). Clastic sills are associated with syn-depositional faulting (Fig. 5c) are less common in depositional record. These mud sills are rarely associated with mud dykes (dyke off-shoots from the parent sill structure) as in the Jalan Bantayan site, West Sabah (Fig. 5d). In some cases, clean sand sill is intruded into the muddy sand unit (Fig. 5e). Due to limited lateral continuity, these clastic sills are interpreted to be developed by seismic triggering mechanism (Madon, 2020).
Injection or intrusion structures. a) discontinuing mud sill penetrated sandstone unit. b) mud sill into thick sandstone interval. c) mud sill intruded into syn-depositional faulted sandstone. d) sill associated dyke structure in sandstone unit. e) clean sand sill injected into muddy sandstone. f) small mud dykes injected into underlying sandstone interval. g) large mud dykes intruded in sandstone at multiple points.
4.3.2 Clastic dykes
Sand or mud filled linear features, that cut across the adjacent layers vertically or at an angle, have size from centimeters to meter scale (Kumar et al., 2020). In the studied sections, clastic dykes are mainly intruded vertically into older strata with length of about 2–5 cm (Fig. 5f). These mud dykes are often injected vertically into medium to thick bedded sandstone unit with variable width from 0.8 cm to 2.3 cm at multiple points and length of dykes may exceeds 20 cm (Fig. 5g). The existence of dykes in the studied area indicate the impact of paleo-seismic activity in form of moderate to high magnitude earthquakes (Rodrı́guez-Pascua et al., 2000).
4.4 Defromed lamination strcutures
4.4.1 Convolute laminations
Complex folding and crumpling of laminations in a sedimentary unit is termed as convolution (Kumar et al., 2020). Overturned convolute laminations are present with broad hinge area in Jalan Sulaman section, NW Sabah (Fig. 6a), while multiple convolutions are overlain by structureless massive sandstone unit in the Lapasan section, NW Sabah (Fig. 6b), and Jalan UMS roadside, West Sabah (Fig. 6c). In some cases, these convolute structures may develop a chaotic morphology in clean sandstone (Fig. 6d) as well as in form of silty mud laminations (Fig. 6e). The convolutions extend in length from 28 to 67 cm along the strike of bed and range in width from 6 to 21 cm. However, the intensity of deformation or folding varies significantly and depending on liquefaction (Koç-Taşgın and Altun, 2019).
Convolution and disturbed laminites. a) overturned convolution. b) and c) multiple convolutions. d) and e) chaotic convolution. f) multiple disturbed laminites associated with mudclasts. g) small-scale disturbed laminites overlain by mud cap.
4.4.2 Disturbed laminites
Disturbed laminites are often developed in silty sand units contain small-scale deformation which are expressed in multiple morphologies (Fig. 6f). The rock units containing these small-scale structures are massive sandstone having floating mudclasts (Fig. 6f) or sandstone gradually altered into disturbed laminations with mud cap (Fig. 6g). Furthermore, the scale of these structures ranges from 7 mm to 4 cm, interpreted as ductile deformation (Ali and Ahmad Ali, 2018).
4.5 Syn-depositional structural deformation
4.5.1 Syn-sedimentary faults
Brittle deformation structures like syn-sedimentary faults are common in heterolithic lithologies in the study area where displacement along the fault plane is normally less than cm scale and bounded by undeformed beds indicating syn-sedimentary origin (Fig. 7a). Most of these faults display reverse dip-slip movement that is associated with compressional stress (Fig. 7b). They are correlated with the subduction and collisional regime of the study area. However, normal syn-sedimentary faults are sporadically present in the studied sections (Fig. 7c,d) indicating a local extensional event (Ko et al., 2017).
Syn-depositional deformations. a) and b) multiple arrays of syn-sedimentary faults. c) and d) localized stress resulted into single syn-sedimentary fault. e) slight bending of thin sandstone. f) syn-depositional fault and folds overlain by undeformed laminations. g) syn-sedimentary folding in sandstone interval. h) fault propagation fold representing a combined effect of brittle and ductile deformations.
4.5.2 Syn-sedimentary folds
Syn-sedimentary folds having broad or narrow area of fold axis (Fig. 7e-g) are present in the Sepangger section, NW Sabah. These syn-sedimentary folds may also be associated with faults (Fig. 7h) as fault propagation folds. In contrast to syn-sedimentary faults, most of the syn-depositional folds are related to clean sandstone units (Fig. 7e), while few syn-sedimentary folds are linked with heterolithic beds (Fig. 7h). The underlying and overlying units are both undeformed that indicate seismic events responsible for these deformation structures (Marco and Agnon, 2005).
4.5.3 Slump structures and mass-transport deposits
Slump units are present in silty shale (Fig. 8a), in sandstone with silty lumps (Fig. 8b), and/or patches of muddy sandstone showing chaotic nature with some rotational activity and floating mudclasts (Fig. 8c). These minor slump units, with limited lateral continuity, are also termed as contorted layers having multiple small events of slumping (Fig. 8d). The small broken mud and sand fragments are common in slump beds bounded either by stratified bedding (Fig. 8e) with undulations or rough arrangement of sediments (Fig. 8f). The size of slump may vary from multimeter (Fig. 8a) to cm level (Fig. 8d) depending on the unit in which slumping took place during the phase of sediment consolidation.
Syn-depositional structural deformation. a) slump fold. b) and c) chaotic slumping. d) contorted layers. e) and f) sand clasts in mud slump. g) and h) mass-transport deposits in silty shale units.
However, presence of various unarranged and partially folded silty shale units (Fig. 8g) in the Kawang section in SW Sabah (Jamil et al., 2020) are interpreted as mass-transport deposits (Fig. 8h) as a result of gravity collapse (Alsop et al., 2019). Furthermore, the presence of repetitive horizons of contorted layers at various levels interpreted to be the result of aseismic trigger; i.e., slope failure (Owen et al., 2011).
5 Discussion
5.1 Seismic and aseismic impact
The Sabah Basin was tectonically active in the Late Paleogene times when subduction and collision of South China Sea was active beneath NW Borneo (Hennig-Breitfeld et al., 2019). The existence of sand dykes, mud flames, ball and pillow structures, and syn-sedimentary faults suggest moderate to high magnitude paleo-seismic activity in the area that was responsible for soft-sediment deformation. However, contorted layers and mass-transport deposits in NW Sabah indicate aseismic origin for the development of SSDSs (Alsop et al., 2019). Moreover, convolute laminations are often associated with thick to massive sandstone indicating the rapid sedimentation as a possible aseismic triggering mechanism (Koç-Taşgın and Altun, 2019). The small broken sand blocks in slump suggests the element of slide associated with slump structure due to liquefaction aseismic phenomenon.
However, slump structures could also slightly fold the silty sandstone thin beds and laminae which are not linked with slide event. They are potentially linked with seismic shocks in unconsolidated sediments (Singh and Jain, 2007). Furthermore, presence of syn-sedimentary faults in the Sepangger, NW Sabah because of localized forces also point out the seismic activity as a possible triggering mechanism (Tongkul, 2017). These sediments having preserved seismic record in form of deformation are termed as seismites that are quite common in active tectonic margins. Large-scale slump structure in deep-marine sediments (NW Sabah) are interpreted to be the result of earthquake of large magnitude (Bowman et al., 2004).
5.2 Distribution in deep-marine fan
The present study integrates the development and distribution of SSDSs with previously proposed generalized submarine fan models (Fig. 9). The previous literature elaborates the distribution of SSDSs in glacio-lacustrine settings (Pisarska-Jamroży and Woźniak, 2019). However, no such attempt has been made to correlate the occurrence of SSDSs and their distribution in deep-marine fan. Initially, facies and facies associations were interpreted for the studied sections and the individual deep-marine architectural elements were identified for entire Crocker submarine fan (Fig. 2). Later, various types of SSDSs were interpreted by their distribution a generalized submarine fan settings (DeVay et al., 2000). The gravitational collapse and chaotic structures found to be associated with slopes with broken sand clasts in siliciclastic rock successions. Rapid sedimentary influx resulted in massive sand units having floating mudclasts, convolution, and dewatering structures associated with proximal fan settings. Alternate medium to thin bedded sand-mud units with load structures are found to be associated with middle fan environment. Minor slump folds and contorted layers are mainly present in silty-shale intervals of outer fan deposits.
A conceptual depositional model proposed for the correlation of deep-marine fan with development of SSDSs.
6 Conclusion
The impact of numerous seismic and aseismic events resulted in the development of wide variety of SSDSs including water-escape structures, ball and pillow structures, pseudonodules, load structures, flame structures, intrusion structures and distorted laminations, and syn-depositional structures in a submarine fan. Load and flame structures were associated with upper denser interval above lighter lithology and caused deformation due to liquidization of unstable sediments. Uneven loading or density contrasts were linked with instabilities of gravity, whereas ascending eviction of pore fluids attributed to water-escape structures. Convolution and syn-sedimentary folds were associated with ductile deformation during downslope gravitation movement, while brittle actions contributed the development of syn-depositional faults. Gravity and seismic activity were major factors which develop the SSDSs in a sedimentary basin. Episodic appearance of syn-depositional folds and faults in stratigraphic intervals interpreted as seismites which are developed due to seismic events in active tectonic settings. Conclusively, these structures were developed in response to both seismic and aseismic processes that were active at discrete stratigraphic intervals in a deep-marine sedimentary basin. A generalized conceptual model is proposed in this study from inner to outer fan environment; where rapid sedimentation and convolution structures are present in inner fan, load structures in middle fan, and minor slump or contorted layers are confined to outer fan environment.
Funding
This project was supported by the Petroleum Research Fund (PRF Cost No. 0153AB-A33) awarded to Dr. Eswaran Padmanabhan and Fundamental Research Grant, Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) Malaysia (Project ID 16880, Reference Code FRGS/1/2019/STG09/UTP/03/1).
Acknowledgements
The authors express sincere thanks to Shale Gas Research Group (SGRG) and Department of Geosciences, Univeristi Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP) Malaysia for fieldwork and data analysis. The comments and feedback from the reviewers greatly improved the manuscript.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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