7.9
CiteScore
 
3.6
Impact Factor
Generic selectors
Exact matches only
Search in title
Search in content
Post Type Selectors
Search in posts
Search in pages
Filter by Categories
ABUNDANCE ESTIMATION IN AN ARID ENVIRONMENT
Case Study
Correspondence
Corrigendum
Editorial
Full Length Article
Invited review
Letter to the Editor
Original Article
Research Article
Retraction notice
REVIEW
Review Article
SHORT COMMUNICATION
Short review
7.2
CiteScore
3.7
Impact Factor
Generic selectors
Exact matches only
Search in title
Search in content
Post Type Selectors
Search in posts
Search in pages
Filter by Categories
ABUNDANCE ESTIMATION IN AN ARID ENVIRONMENT
Case Study
Correspondence
Corrigendum
Editorial
Full Length Article
Invited review
Letter to the Editor
Original Article
Research Article
Retraction notice
REVIEW
Review Article
SHORT COMMUNICATION
Short review
View/Download PDF

Translate this page into:

Review Article
2026
:38;
11242025
doi:
10.25259/JKSUS_1124_2025

Toward next-generation antimicrobial technologies: g-C₃N₄ photocatalysts for sustainable disinfection under visible light

, , , ,
aDepartment of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia, Jamia Nagar, 110025, New Delhi, India
bDepartment of Chemistry, King Saud University, 11451, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
cDepartment of AIIM Building Innovation Campus, University of Wollongong, AIIM Building Innovation Campus, North Wollongong, 2500, Australia
dKing Saud University, Saudi Arabia

* Corresponding author E-mail address: tahamed@ksu.edu.sa (T Ahamad) and alshehri@ksu.edu.sa (Saad M Alshehri)

Received: , Accepted: ,
© 2026 Journal of King Saud University – Science - Published by Scientific Scholar
Licence
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 License, which allows others to remix, transform, and build upon the work non-commercially, as long as the author is credited and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.

Abstract

The rapid rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and increasing microbial contamination in water, air, and surface environments call for sustainable and effective disinfection strategies beyond traditional chemical treatments. Visible-light-driven photocatalysis has emerged as a green alternative; however, most traditional photocatalysts suffer from drawbacks such as high cost, instability, and limited visible-light utilization. Among the various photocatalysts examined, graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) has attracted considerable attention as a next-generation disinfection material due to its metal-free structure, tunable electronic structure, low-cost synthesis, and strong stability under visible light. This review uniquely consolidates recent advances in g-C3N4-based antimicrobial photocatalysts by highlighting how structural modifications such as elemental doping, vacancy engineering, morphology tailoring, and heterojunction formation address these intrinsic limitations. Unlike previous reports, these emphasize the mechanistic pathways of microbial inactivation, linking charge transfer processes with oxidative stress, membrane rupture, and genetic material degradation. Furthermore, the critical assessment of the translation of these laboratory-scale findings into photocatalytic applications in water purification, surface sterilization, and air treatment outlines performance benchmarks and environmental safety concerns. Key challenges, including charge carrier recombination, limited light absorption, and environmental durability, are addressed alongside emerging solutions. By identifying unresolved knowledge gaps and emerging design principles, this work provides new insights into the rational engineering development of g-C3N4-based photocatalysts and their practical distribution in scalable antimicrobial technologies.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Visible-light-driven g-C3N4 photocatalysts generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) that disrupt microbial cells through oxidative stress, offering a sustainable and metal-free approach for water, air, and surface disinfection.

Keywords

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR)
Disinfection technologies
Graphitic carbon nitride
Photocatalysis
Reactive oxygen species
Visible light

1. Introduction

The global rise in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and increasing incidence of microbial contamination in water, air, and surfaces demand the development of sustainable and effective disinfection technologies (Werkneh and Islam 2023). Traditional chemical disinfectants (e.g., chlorine, alcohol, and quaternary ammonium compounds) and thermal sterilization methods, while effective, often suffer from drawbacks such as toxicity, byproduct formation, and limited efficacy against resistant strains. Furthermore, overuse of antibiotics and disinfectants contributes to the proliferation of multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens, posing a severe threat to public health (Kampf, 2018; Rizzo et al., 2013; Ventola, 2015). Photocatalysis has emerged as a green and non-toxic disinfection method, leveraging light-induced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) shown in Fig. 1(a), to inactivate a wide spectrum of microbial agents, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi (Vatansever et al., 2013; An et al., 2017; Lam et al., 2020; Elgohary et al., 2021; Soni et al., 2022). Among various photocatalysts, graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) has attracted considerable attention due to its unique combination of properties: a visible-light-responsive bandgap (∼2.7 eV), high thermal and chemical stability, metal-free composition, and facile synthesis from inexpensive precursors such as urea or melamine (Zhang et al., 2019; Ni et al., 2021; An et al., 2023; Attri et al., 2023; Akintunde 2024).

(a) Schematic of ROS generation in P. capsici by using g-C3N4 nanosheets under visible light. Adapted with permission from (Cai, Wei et al. 2021). (License No. 6056981005365). (b) illustrates the rising publications on antimicrobial g-C3N4 Photocatalysts from 2016 to June 2025, indicating increasing interest in research. (c) Graphical representation of antimicrobial g-C3N4 in various photocatalytic applications, showing its versatility in environmental and energy-related applications.
Fig. 1.
(a) Schematic of ROS generation in P. capsici by using g-C3N4 nanosheets under visible light. Adapted with permission from (Cai, Wei et al. 2021). (License No. 6056981005365). (b) illustrates the rising publications on antimicrobial g-C3N4 Photocatalysts from 2016 to June 2025, indicating increasing interest in research. (c) Graphical representation of antimicrobial g-C3N4 in various photocatalytic applications, showing its versatility in environmental and energy-related applications.

Under visible-light irradiation, g-C3N4 can generate ROS such as superoxide anion radicals (·O2⁻), hydroxyl radicals (·OH), and singlet oxygen (1O2), which attack microbial membranes, disrupt intracellular components, and inhibit biofilm formation (Alaghmandfard and Ghandi 2022). Studies have demonstrated antimicrobial efficacy of both pristine and modified g-C3N4 against Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus, Gram-negative E. coli, viruses such as MS2 bacteriophage, and even SARS-CoV-2. For example, g-C3N4 (150 mg/L) achieved complete inactivation of MS2 (∼108 PFU/mL) under visible light in 360 min, with consistent performance across repeated cycles (Li et al., 2016). In water disinfection tests, pristine g-C3N4 achieved 5-log bacterial reduction within 150 min (Zhang et al., 2021). Moreover, g-C3N4 combined with expanded perlite produced >8-log reduction of E. coli under visible light in under 4 h (environmental conditions such as pH, oxygen levels, and ionic strength were noted to affect performance). Despite these advances, practical deployment is hindered by rapid recombination of photogenerated electron-hole pairs, low surface area, and limited absorption beyond 450 nm. To overcome these limitations, modifications like heteroatom doping (P, S, metals), structural engineering (nanotubes, nanosheets), and heterojunction formation with TiO2, Ag, ZnO, or MOFs have been explored. For instance, Ag-embedded g-C3N4 nanocomposites significantly improve disinfection under visible light compared to bulk g-C3N4 (Du et al., 2023; Sharma et al., 2025). This review examines recent changes in g-C3N4-based photocatalysts that respond to visible light and are designed to kill microbes (Cai et al., 2021). We investigate the basic ways by which disinfectants work, such as ROS action, charge dynamics, and membrane disruption. We look at how changes to the structure and composition affect performance across different types of microbes (bacteria, viruses, fungi, and biofilms) and talk about how these changes can be used in water treatment, surface sterilization, and air purification. We also talk about how well it works in the real world (in wastewater and natural waters) and point out some of its existing problems, such as catalyst stability, scalability, safety, cost, reactor design, and following the rules. Lastly, we suggest ways to speed up the process of turning lab prototypes into long-lasting, large-scale antibacterial technology.

From ScienceDirect, we have studied the development of g-C3N4-based photocatalysts Fig. 1(b) focusing on their role in antimicrobial disinfection under visible light. A large number of research articles were examined to understand modification strategies such as elemental doping, morphological engineering, heterojunction construction, and Z-scheme formation, which enhance light absorption, charge carrier separation, and microbial inactivation efficiency. Antimicrobial applications were also analyzed across different pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and biofilms, with distribution represented in the form of a pie chart, as depicted in Fig. 1(c), highlighting water, air, and surface disinfection studies. These investigations clearly demonstrate the ability of g-C3N4-based photocatalysts to inactivate pathogens via ROS generation and membrane disruption, making them promising candidates for sustainable disinfection technologies. Based on the findings, we conclude that g-C3N4 should be further explored due to its advantageous properties, such as visible-light response, stability, and metal-free composition. This review emphasizes recent advancements in structural and compositional engineering of g-C3N4, discusses their limitations, and evaluates strategies to improve their performance for real-world environmental disinfection. To the best of our knowledge, no review has comprehensively highlighted the potential of g-C3N4 photocatalysts for next-generation antimicrobial technologies, and thus, the present work aims to fill this gap by critically assessing their role in visible-light-driven microbial inactivation.

2. Material Modification Strategies

The g-C3N4 is a metal-free polymeric semiconductor that has drawn a lot of attention for visible-light photocatalysis because it has a good bandgap (∼2.7 eV), is very stable in heat and chemicals, and is made of earth-abundant composition (Ding et al., 2017; Gaddam et al., 2020; Magnano San Lio et al., 2023). It has shown promise for uses in breaking down pollutants, making hydrogen, lowering CO2 levels, and microbial inactivation. Apart from these benefits, pristine g-C3N4 usually has a low surface area because it aggregates in bulk, only absorbs visible light up to 460 nm, and quickly recombines electron-hole pairs that are created by light (Tong et al., 2025). These kinds of limits lead to short charge carrier lifetimes and low efficiency in real-world photocatalytic systems (Wudil et al., 2023). As a result, new modification strategies, including element doping, controlling morphology, creating heterojunctions (such as Type II, Z-scheme, and Schottky junctions), surface functionalization, and composite formation, have up to tackle these deficits (Tang et al., 2024; Soni et al., 2025). These engineered enhancements aim to extend light absorption across extended wavelengths, increase surface area and active sites, enhance charge separation, and accelerate ROS production, collectively driving stronger antimicrobial activity under visible-light irradiation.

2.1 Elemental doping

Elemental doping is a widely employed strategy to tune the electronic structure of g-C3N4 and enhance its photocatalytic and antibacterial activities. Incorporating non-metal dopants like Oxygen (O), sulfur (S), Phosphorus (P), or Boron (B), or halogens enables the substitutions of carbon or nitrogen atoms in the heptazine of g-C3N4 (Gao et al., 2020; Starukh and Praus 2020; Li et al., 2022). These substitutions introduce lattice defects, generate mid-gap states, and effectively narrow the intrinsic band gap of ∼2.7 eV, thereby extending visible-light absorption and suppressing electron-hole recombination. For instance, elemental Cu doping in the ZnO/S-g-C3N4 enabled the CZN-25 nanocomposites to achieve 100% MB (methylene blue) degradation within 60 min under sunlight, while maintaining excellent stability over multiple cycles through efficient heterojunction interfaces and suppressed electron-hole recombination (Javed et al., 2021). The Cu doping greatly enhances the photocatalytic efficiency of ZnO, as seen from its 3.5-fold higher methyl orange degradation compared to pure ZnO, which completes the oxidation of As(III) and As(V) within 120 min, and nearly 28.5 and 12-fold superior MO degradation in 3% Cu doping in the ZnO/TiO2.

In another study, Ag-doped g-C3N4 (AgCN) showed 96.8% tetracycline degradation under solar light within 120 min and maintained 89.6% removal efficiency in antibiotic-containing wastewater with excellent stability over 6 cycles (Tri et al., 2019).

Pattanayak et al. (2023) demonstrated that metal doping in g-C3N4 effectively tunes its electronic structure, enhances visible-light absorption, and improves charge carrier dynamics (Pattanayak et al., 2023). Qiu et al. developed (Qiu et al., 2022) a metal-doped MgFe2O4@g-C3N4 nanocomposite with a heterojunction structure that significantly enhanced visible-light absorption and charge separation. Rodmuang and coworkers (Rodmuang et al., 2020) incorporate Ag into ZnO/g-C3N4, making it much better at killing bacteria by enhancing charge separation and ROS formation after exposure to visible light. The Ag/ZnO/g-C3N4 compound is good for disinfecting since it stops germs and fungi from growing. Moreover, elemental doping effectively tailored the band structure of g-C3N4, boosting visible light absorption, charge separation, and ROS generation.

2.2 Morphological engineering

Changing the shape of g-C3N4, such as turning it into very thin, porous sheets or creating mesoporous or nanotubular forms, significantly increases its surface area and ability to absorb light, which aids in separating charges and producing ROS (Dong et al., 2021). This structural tailoring improves the photocatalytic antibacterial performance of visible light by exposing more active sites and lowering the rate at which electrons and holes recombine (Stefa et al., 2023). Building up this statement, Huang et al. reported that Exfoliated g-C3N4 nanosheets made in one step had 2.3-6.5 times more visible-light photoactivity than bulk material. This is because they have more surface area and better charge separation (Huang et al., 2024). Kumar et al. developed a mesoporous g-C3N4 created without a template by sonochemical synthesis, which broke down 5.5 times faster under visible light than bulk g-C3N4. This was because it had better electron-hole separation and adsorption. And Yang et al. prepared highly crystalline g-C3N4 nanosheets (HCCNNS) via hydrothermal treatment and secondary calcination, resulting in improved light absorption, charge separation, and pollutant adsorption. This led to 6.9 and 5.8-fold enhancements in the degradation of Ciprofloxacin (CIP) and Sulfamethoxazole (SMZ) under visible light. The synthesis route, Fig. 2(a) show the synthesis diagram of the four g-C3N4 samples, while Fig. 2(b) display the UV-visible absorption spectra. Fig. 2(c) present the Kubelka–Munk transformed spectra, Fig. 2(d) illustrate the PL spectra, and Fig. 2(e) depict the transient photocurrent response of the samples. Additionally, Fig. 2(f) show the TEM images, and Fig. 2(g) provide the HRTEM image of HCCNNS. (Yang et al., 2021). Hence, tailoring g-C3N4 into nanosheets, mesoporous, or tubular structures greatly increases surface area, enhances light absorption, and improves charge separation, which boosts ROS generation, leading to much stronger photocatalytic and antibacterial activity under visible light.

(a) The synthesis diagram of the four g-C3N4 samples; (b) UV-visible absorption spectra, (c) Kubelka-Munk transformed spectra, (d) PL spectra, and (e) transient photocurrent response of four g-C3N4 samples. (f) TEM images of HCCNNS and (g) HRTEM image of HCCNNS. Adapted with permission from (Yang, Z., et al. 2021). (License No. 6056060717745).
Fig. 2.
(a) The synthesis diagram of the four g-C3N4 samples; (b) UV-visible absorption spectra, (c) Kubelka-Munk transformed spectra, (d) PL spectra, and (e) transient photocurrent response of four g-C3N4 samples. (f) TEM images of HCCNNS and (g) HRTEM image of HCCNNS. Adapted with permission from (Yang, Z., et al. 2021). (License No. 6056060717745).

2.3 Heterojunction and Z-scheme formation

In type-II heterojunctions, electrons transfer from the higher CB of semiconductor I to the lower CB of semiconductor II, while holes migrate from the VB of semiconductor II to that of semiconductor I, leading to effective charge separation and suppressed e‾ and h+ recombination (Mikhailova et al., 1994; Bilal et al., 2025). However, their major limitation lies in the weakened redox ability and partial carrier recombination, which restricts overall photocatalytic efficiency. To overcome these drawbacks, Z-scheme heterojunctions were introduced, as they preserve the strong redox potentials of the semiconductors by recombining the low-energy carriers while retaining the highly energetic ones, thereby achieving superior photocatalytic performance compared to conventional type-II (Chauhan et al., 2025; Sharma et al., 2025). For instance, Zhang et al. (Zhang et al., 2020) developed a Bi7O9I3/g-C3N4 (BCN) direct Z-scheme heterojunction, especially the BCN-0.2 variant, which demonstrated superior photocatalytic activity under visible light due to efficient charge separation and enhanced reactive species production. Supporting analyses Figs. 3(a-f) confirmed its strong electron-hole transfer ability, excellent cycling stability, and promising application for antibiotic degradation and antimicrobial functions.

Diagrammatic sketch of the e- and h+ transfer process for BCN: (a) type II, (b) Z-scheme. DC represents doxycycline hydrochloride. And Spectra of (c) PL, (d) TPR, and (e) EIS. (f) Regeneration cycles of BCN-0.2 heterostructure. Adapted with permission from (Zhang, Z., et al. 2020). (License No. 6055850763199).
Fig. 3.
Diagrammatic sketch of the e- and h+ transfer process for BCN: (a) type II, (b) Z-scheme. DC represents doxycycline hydrochloride. And Spectra of (c) PL, (d) TPR, and (e) EIS. (f) Regeneration cycles of BCN-0.2 heterostructure. Adapted with permission from (Zhang, Z., et al. 2020). (License No. 6055850763199).

Gao and coworkers (Gao et al., 2024) synthesized a Z-scheme g-C3N4-TiO2 heterojunction inserted in a CS/PVA matrix makes the antibacterial activity, mechanical strength, and UV resistance of the fruit last longer when exposed to visible light. Fig. 4(a) shows how photocatalysis works, with a focus on how ROS are made when light hits them to kill bacteria. Moreover, Akechatree et al. (Akechatree et al., 2025) synthesized a BiVO4/g-C3N4/rGO (BGR) ternary heterojunction photocatalyst with enhanced photocatalytic degradation efficiency via Z-scheme and type-II mechanisms, Fig. 4(b). The BGR nanocomposite showed strong antibacterial activity against K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, E. coli, and S. aureus under visible light (Fig. 4(c)) and maintained performance over multiple cycles. Photoluminescence (PL) spectra and surface area analysis supported its efficient charge separation, as shown in Figs. 4(d and e) (Akechatree et al., 2025).

(a) Schematic mechanism of photocatalytic antibacterial preservation of g-C3N4-TiO2/CS/PVA composite film under visible light. Adapted with permission from (Gao, X., et al., 2024). (License No. 6055991105610). (b) Possible mechanism of the BGR ternary NCs under Visible light exposure. (c) Antibacterial activity of BGR against clinical pathogens with ampicillin control. (d) PL spectra and (e) Nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherm of BiVO4, BG, BR, and BGR ternary NCs. Adapted with permission from (Akechatree, N., et al. 2025). (License No. 6056001158028).
Fig. 4.
(a) Schematic mechanism of photocatalytic antibacterial preservation of g-C3N4-TiO2/CS/PVA composite film under visible light. Adapted with permission from (Gao, X., et al., 2024). (License No. 6055991105610). (b) Possible mechanism of the BGR ternary NCs under Visible light exposure. (c) Antibacterial activity of BGR against clinical pathogens with ampicillin control. (d) PL spectra and (e) Nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherm of BiVO4, BG, BR, and BGR ternary NCs. Adapted with permission from (Akechatree, N., et al. 2025). (License No. 6056001158028).

In a reported work, Gao et al.(Gao et al., 2023) developed a Zn composite coating embedded with Fe3+-doped alkalized g-C3N4 (AKCN-Fe), exhibiting enhanced visible-light-driven antibacterial activity due to improved photocatalytic ROS generation. Furthermore, Guo et al. designed (Guo et al., 2021) a CoB/g-C3N4 Schottky heterojunction with interfacial Co-N bonds, forming a 0.26 eV upward band bending that enhances charge separation and electron transfer. This facilitates efficient ROS generation (·O₂⁻ and H₂O₂), enabling complete inactivation of S. aureus under visible light. The photocatalytic mechanism, ROS pathways, and electronic structure have been illustrated in Figs. 5(a-e). Also, constructing heterojunctions and Z-scheme systems with g-C3N4 markedly enhances visible-light photocatalysis by improving charge separation, boosting ROS generation, and strengthening redox reactions. These strategies not only accelerate pollutant degradation but also deliver strong and stable antibacterial performance, making them highly promising for practical disinfection and environmental applications. Altogether, these modification strategies-elemental doping, morphological engineering, and heterojunction formation- offer complementary routes to overcome the intrinsic drawbacks of pristine g-C3N4. After tuning its band structure, enlarging the surface area, and facilitating directional charge transfer, they collectively unlock stronger photocatalytic efficiency and antibacterial performance under visible light. Such engineered systems pave the way for practical applications in environmental purification, renewable energy, and microbial disinfection.

(a) Possible photocatalytic S. aureus inactivation process of CoB/CNs-2 Schottky heterojunction. (b) CoB/CNs heterojunction; (c) The photocatalytic inactivation of S. aureus by CoB/CNs-2 in the presence of different scavengers; (d) The photogeneration of H2O2 by the obtained samples. And (e) density of states of CoB/CNs heterojunction. Adapted with permission from (Guo, H., et al. 2021). (License No. 6056020860253). And inactivation mechanisms of representative pathogens in g-C3N4-based metal-free visible-light-enabled photocatalytic disinfection: (f) Escherichia coli bacteria in the g-C3N4/Vis/H2O2 system, (g) Escherichia coli bacteria in the g-C3N4/Vis/PMS system, (h) human adenoviruses in the g-C3N4/Vis/H2O2 system, (i) human adenoviruses in the g-C3N4/Vis/PMS system. (j) Roles of ROS in the inactivation of different disinfection processes. Adapted with permission from (Zhang, C., et al. 2021). (License No. 6056590049762).
Fig. 5.
(a) Possible photocatalytic S. aureus inactivation process of CoB/CNs-2 Schottky heterojunction. (b) CoB/CNs heterojunction; (c) The photocatalytic inactivation of S. aureus by CoB/CNs-2 in the presence of different scavengers; (d) The photogeneration of H2O2 by the obtained samples. And (e) density of states of CoB/CNs heterojunction. Adapted with permission from (Guo, H., et al. 2021). (License No. 6056020860253). And inactivation mechanisms of representative pathogens in g-C3N4-based metal-free visible-light-enabled photocatalytic disinfection: (f) Escherichia coli bacteria in the g-C3N4/Vis/H2O2 system, (g) Escherichia coli bacteria in the g-C3N4/Vis/PMS system, (h) human adenoviruses in the g-C3N4/Vis/H2O2 system, (i) human adenoviruses in the g-C3N4/Vis/PMS system. (j) Roles of ROS in the inactivation of different disinfection processes. Adapted with permission from (Zhang, C., et al. 2021). (License No. 6056590049762).

3. Mechanisms of Microbial Inactivation

Photocatalytic microbial inactivation using g-C3N4 under visible light is primarily governed by the generation and action of ROS. These species, including •O2⁻, •OH, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and 1O2, are potent oxidants that attack microbial cell structures, leading to irreversible damage and eventual cell death (Lin et al., 2021).

3.1 Generation of ROS

Under visible-light (λ > 420 nm) irradiation, g-C3N4 absorbs photons that excite electrons (e-) from the valence band to the conduction band, leaving holes (h+) behind (Yang et al., 2016). These charge carriers interact with oxygen and water adsorbed on the catalyst surface to produce ROS such as •O₂⁻, •OH, H2O2, and 1O2 (Kong et al., 2021). Cai et al. revealed that urea-derived g-C3N4 nanosheets generate ROS under visible light (Fig. 1(a)), disrupting multiple life stages of Phytophthora capsici by damaging cell membranes and organelles. This multi-target oxidative stress mechanism offers effective antimicrobial action and reduces the risk of resistance development (Cai et al., 2021). The photogenerated electrons and holes migrate to the catalyst surface, where they participate in redox reactions:

(1)
O 2 + e − → · O 2    −

(2)
H 2 O+h + → • OH + H +

(3)
· O 2    − + 2 H +   +  e −   →  H 2 O 2

(4)
H 2 O 2 + h v   →   • OH +   • OH

These ROS species work together to destroy microbial components, such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which weakens the structure. For instance, Li et al.’s recent MoS2/g-C3N4 heterojunctions study shows that visible-light-triggered ROS eliminated E. coli within 20 min and S. aureus within 30 min (Li et al., 2025). Furthermore, Zhang et al. (Zhang et al., 2021) showed that in the g-C3N4/Vis system, photogenerated electrons are mostly responsible for ROS-mediated microbial inactivation, as shown by scavenging tests Figs. 5(f-j). Adding H2O2 or peroxymonosulfate (PMS) made disinfection far more effective against viruses and spores, which are hard to kill.

Another study by Wang et al. also made a g-C3N4@AuNPs nanozyme that turns small amounts of H2O2 into ·OH radicals, which is a very strong antibacterial effect (Wang et al., 2017). This technique kills drug-resistant bacteria and biofilms very well and helps wounds heal with very little harm. Xing et al. developed a polyethyleneimine (PEI) grafted O-doped g-C3N4 (PEI/OCN) photocatalyst with enhanced visible-light activity and strong bacterial interaction, enabling rapid ROS generation. It achieved complete 7-log E. coli inactivation in 30 min, primarily driven by •O2⁻ radicals (Xing et al., 2022). In short, ROS generation is the main way that g-C3N4-based antimicrobial photocatalysis works. By adding metals, hybrid nanozymes, and functionalizing the surface, the process improves the absorption of visible light, the separation of charges, and the interaction with bacteria, all of which help to quickly and effectively kill microbes. Although through band-gap tuning, heterojunction construction, and surface functionalization, visible-light absorption and charge separation are enhanced, which in turn accelerates ROS production. These highly reactive species attack microbial membranes, proteins, and genetic material, ensuring rapid and effective inactivation against drug-resistant strains and biofilms.

3.2 Membrane disruption and cell leakage

The ROS is made in the first step, then attacks the cell membranes of microbes, which leads to lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, and the destruction of structures (Cabiscol Catalā et al., 2000; Bhattacharya 2014; Zhang et al., 2023). These processes damage cells and make membranes more permeable, which causes electrolytes, proteins, and nucleic acids to flow out of cells (Bhakdi and Tranum-Jensen 1988). For instance, Arumugam et al. synthesized Ag@g-C3N4 nanomaterials that effectively disrupted Candida albicans cell membranes and biofilms, leading to intracellular leakage and reduced cell viability. Their antifungal action is linked to Ag-induced membrane damage, offering a promising biocompatible approach for oral infection control (Arumugam et al., 2024). Moreover, Guo et al. (Guo et al., 2022) came up with acridinium-grafted g-C3N4 (ADN@g-C3N4), Fig. 6(a), which interacted strongly with bacterial membranes and greatly increased the production of ROS when exposed to light. Fluorescence and Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) tests, Figs. 6(b-f), showed that there were more of the important radicals (1O₂, ·OH, ·O2⁻) that cause oxidative stress and damage to membranes. Figs. 6(g-h) explained that microscopy and fluorescence imaging showed a lot of damage to the membranes of E. coli and S. aureus. Fig. 6(i) shows how this happened. This shows that ADN@g-C3N4 could kill bacterial biofilms by damaging their membranes with light (Guo et al., 2022).

(a) Synthesis of ADN@g-C3N4 and its antimicrobial mechanism. (b) Fluorescence spectra of DCFDH-DA. The grafted ADN and light irradiation increase the ROS generation. (e) ESR spectra of g-C3N4, ADN@g-C3N4. ESR spectra upon light irradiation/in dark of g-C3N4 (black), ADN@g-C3N4 (red), g-C3N4 +light (blue), ADN@g-C3N4 +light (green) for the detection of (f) 1O2, (g) •OH, and h) •O2. Fluorescence spectra of (i) E. coli and (j) S. aureus with different treatments with cFDA-SE as a probe. Adapted with permission from (Guo, J., et al. 2022). (License No. 6056900939257).
Fig. 6.
(a) Synthesis of ADN@g-C3N4 and its antimicrobial mechanism. (b) Fluorescence spectra of DCFDH-DA. The grafted ADN and light irradiation increase the ROS generation. (e) ESR spectra of g-C3N4, ADN@g-C3N4. ESR spectra upon light irradiation/in dark of g-C3N4 (black), ADN@g-C3N4 (red), g-C3N4 +light (blue), ADN@g-C3N4 +light (green) for the detection of (f) 1O2, (g) •OH, and h) •O2. Fluorescence spectra of (i) E. coli and (j) S. aureus with different treatments with cFDA-SE as a probe. Adapted with permission from (Guo, J., et al. 2022). (License No. 6056900939257).

Furthermore, Xia et al. developed a g-C3N4@CuO nanocomposite that induced substantial oxidative stress and structural damage to Ralstonia solanacearum, disrupting membranes and genetic material (Xia et al., 2024). This hybrid material demonstrated superior antimicrobial action and disease suppression compared to its components. Also, a self-floating Ag2O/g-C3N4/hydrogel composite that effectively disrupted algal membranes and phycobiliproteins under visible light. The generated ROS caused oxidative damage, collapsing antioxidant defenses in Microcystis aeruginosa, leading to efficient algal inactivation in aquatic environments (Fan et al., 2021). Photocatalyst-induced ROS generation leads to bacterial membrane rupture and cytoplasmic leakage, making it a crucial mechanism in microbial inactivation. This enhances the effectiveness of g-C3N4-based systems for biomedical sterilization and environmental disinfection. So, ROS-driven membrane disruption is a critical pathway in g-C3N4-based antimicrobial photocatalysis. By oxidizing lipids and proteins, these species compromise membrane integrity, leading to leakage of essential biomolecules and eventual cell death. Such oxidative damage, demonstrated across bacteria, fungi, and algae, underscores the broad-spectrum potential of g-C₃N₄-based systems for biomedical sterilization and environmental disinfection.

3.3 DNA/RNA damage

In addition to membrane disruption, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) damage is a vital mechanism by which g-C3N4-based photocatalysts exert antimicrobial activity (Cai et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2022). Upon visible light irradiation, the generated ROS can penetrate microbial cells and interact with nucleic acids, leading to strand breaks, base modifications, and transcriptional dysfunction (Rastogi et al., 2010; Lechner et al., 2021). This oxidative damage interferes with essential genetic processes, ultimately resulting in cell death (Ott et al., 2007). For instance, Cong et al. showed that g-C3N4-Pd/Cu photocatalytic ozonation effectively degrades antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) under visible light (Cong et al., 2024). This highlights its strong potential for DNA-level microbial inactivation, especially against GC-rich bacteria. Figs. 7(a and b) illustrates the near-complete removal of 23S rDNA (recombinant DNA), approaching the quantification limit after treatment. Figs. 7(c-f) compares gene removal efficiency, showing g-C3N4-CuPd performs better than TiO2-CuPd in photocatalytic ozonation. Moreover, Wu et al. (2019) developed a MnO2/g-C3N4 heterostructure coating that greatly increased the production of ROS under visible light. This caused damage to bacterial DNA and denaturation of proteins. The approach also used up the GSH defences inside cells, killing more than 99% of S. aureus and E. coli in 20 min (Wu et al., 2019). Oxidative stress from ROS penetrates cells and disrupts DNA/RNA (ribonucleic acid) by causing strand breaks and base modifications. This hampers replication and transcription, ensuring complete microbial inactivation. Moreover, g-C3N4-based photocatalysis inactivated microbes mainly through ROS generation, which triggers a cascade of destructive processes. These include membrane disruption and cytoplasmic leakage, followed by DNA/RNA oxidation that blocks replication and transcription. By combining these multi-target pathways, g-C3N4 ensures rapid, broad-spectrum, and resistance-proof antimicrobial action, making it highly promising for both biomedical and environmental applications.

(a-b) Comparison of the removal rates of ARGs in two photocatalytic scenarios. And (c-f) Comparison of the performance of Cu/Pd1%(TiO2-based and g-C3N4-based) photocatalytic ozonation (with/without H2O2) in suppressing blaTEM, 16 S rDNA, 23 S rDNA, intl1, ermB, qnrS, tetM regrowth. *Blank column: below quantification/detection limit. Adapted with permission from (Cong, X., et al., 2024). Copyright © 2024. Springer Nature.
Fig. 7.
(a-b) Comparison of the removal rates of ARGs in two photocatalytic scenarios. And (c-f) Comparison of the performance of Cu/Pd1%(TiO2-based and g-C3N4-based) photocatalytic ozonation (with/without H2O2) in suppressing blaTEM, 16 S rDNA, 23 S rDNA, intl1, ermB, qnrS, tetM regrowth. *Blank column: below quantification/detection limit. Adapted with permission from (Cong, X., et al., 2024). Copyright © 2024. Springer Nature.

4. Environmental Disinfection Applications

Graphitic carbon nitride offers a sustainable platform for environmental disinfection due to its visible-light-driven antimicrobial activity. Its integration into air, water, and surface sterilization systems enables broad-spectrum pathogen removal under eco-friendly conditions (Liu 2020; Bhanderi et al., 2024; Mohamadpour and Amani 2024; Reddy 2024; Shaabani et al., 2024).

Table 1 presents a comparative overview of various g-C3N4-based photocatalytic systems, their application domains, modification strategies, targeted pathogens, and corresponding disinfection efficiencies under visible-light irradiation.

Table 1. Comparative Summary of g-C3N4-Based Photocatalysts for Environmental Disinfection Applications.
Photocatalyst system Application area Modification type Targeted pathogens Disinfection efficiency Ref.
MnO2/g-C3N4 Surface sterilization Z-scheme heterojunction S. aureus, E. coli 99% inactivation in 20 min via ROS & GSH depletion (Wu et al., 2019)
g-C3N4/Bi2MoO6 Marine biofouling control Composite coating Marine bacteria ∼90% sterilization over 4 cycles; visible-light stable. (Tian et al., 2018)

HJ-CN (g-C3N4

QDs/nanosheets)

 Surface & water sterilization Homojunction assembly MRSA, E. coli 3.79× & 3.23× higher inactivation; hydrophobic adhesion-driven (Yang et al., 2023)
2D g-C3N4 Water sterilization 2D nanosheet formation E. coli, S. aureus, S. typhimurium >90% inactivation within 30 min (Heo et al., 2019)
CoB/g-C3N4 Surface sterilization Co–N bonded Schottky junction S. aureus 100% inactivation in 125 min via electron transfer (Guo et al., 2021)
g-C3N4-TiO2/CS/PVA Food packaging sterilization Z-scheme + biodegradable polymer Strawberry spoilage microbes Shelf-life extended to 120 h under LED light (Gao et al., 2024)
BiVO4/g-C3N4/rGO (BGR) Water disinfection Ternary Z-scheme heterojunction Dyes + bacteria (E. coli, S. aureus) ∼95-97% pollutant & bacterial removal; 5× reusability (Akechatree et al., 2025)
g-C3N4-Pd/Cu with peroxone AOP Water disinfection Noble metal + ozone ARGs Near-complete ARG elimination via DNA oxidation pathways (Cong et al., 2024)
HCCNNS (crystalline nanosheets) Water pollutant/bacteria removal Ultrathin morphology Antibiotics (CIP, SMZ) & bacteria ∼98% antibiotic degradation; 6× faster kinetics (Yang et al., 2021)
AgBr/g-C3N4 Water disinfection AgBr heterojunction E. coli ------ (Zhan et al., 2018)
TiO2@g-C3N4/SiO2 composite Air purification TiO2@g-C3N4 heterojunction Formaldehyde 83% formaldehyde removal under visible light (Zheng et al., 2023)
MoS₂/g-C3N4 Surface sterilization 2D semiconductor stacking E. coli, S. aureus Rapid bacterial inactivation via ROS (Li et al., 2025)

Fe3O4/g-C3N4

Magnetic composite

 Water disinfection Magnetic composite RhB dye + bacteria ∼97% pollutant degradation; excellent recyclability (He et al., 2020)

g-C3N4@g-C3N4

core–shell

 Surface Silver-incorporated core-shell E. coli 5-log reduction in 60 min; extended durability and dual-mode silver + ROS disinfection (Kubacka et al., 2021)
Nanowire-Rich g-C3N4 Film Water disinfection Vapor-assisted confined deposition E. coli Achieved >99.99% bacterial inactivation in 4 h under visible light (Zhang et al., 2021)

4.1 Air purification

Air pollution, predominantly caused by nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), represents a critical environmental and public health concern due to its role in respiratory disorders, secondary pollutant formation (like ozone and photochemical smog), and ecological degradation (Patel et al., 2014; Manisalidis et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2023; Odubo and Kosoe 2024). This is why it is so important to make good photocatalysts for cleaning the air. For instance, Pham et al. synthesized TiO2@g-C3N4 composites via a one-step pyrolysis method, which exhibited remarkable photocatalytic performance with nearly 90% NO degradation under visible light, primarily due to the generation of •O2⁻. The composite demonstrated stable structural Fig. 8(a) shows the synthesis of TiO2@g-C3N4, while Fig. 8(b) presents the DRS spectra. Fig. 8(c) illustrates the photocatalytic activity, and Fig. 8(d) demonstrates the photocatalytic stability of TiO2@g-C3N4. Additionally, Fig. 8(e) displays the ESR signals of •O2 radicals, and Fig. 8(f) presents the proposed photocatalytic mechanism of the TiO2@g-C3N4 heterojunction based on the Z-scheme interface for NO degradation under visible light (Pham et al., 2021). Furthermore, Dong et al. demonstrated that g-C3N4 immobilized on Al2O3 ceramic foam effectively removed up to 77.1% of NO under indoor lighting, showing strong photocatalytic stability. The firm chemical bonding ensured durability under airflow, highlighting its potential for practical air purification applications (Dong et al., 2014). Furthermore, Baudys et al. concluded that S-doped g-C3N4 is good at getting rid of nitrogen oxides (NOx) in both Ultraviolet and visible light because it makes a lot of superoxide radicals, even if it doesn’t work very well against acetaldehyde. This shows that g-C3N4 has a lot of potential for cleaning the air, especially for controlling NOx in normal illumination conditions (Baudys et al., 2020). Papailias et al. (2024) found that adding g-C3N4 to TiO₂ coatings made them much better at removing NOx and acetaldehyde when exposed to visible light, by more than 50%. The development of g-C3N4/TiO₂ heterojunctions leads to greater charge separation and dispersion, which is why this improvement happened (Papailias et al., 2024). When used simultaneously, g-C3N4 photocatalysts offer a safe and visible-light-driven method to enhance air quality. They work well in continuous, populated spaces, and the heterojunction design increases ROS production, making them a great addition to future air purification systems. Therefore, g-C3N4-based heterojunction photocatalysts provide a stable and highly efficient strategy for removing NOx and VOCs, making them promising candidates for air purification systems.

(a) Synthesis of TiO2@g-C3N4. (b) DRS spectra. (c) The photocatalytic activity. (d) The photocatalytic stability of TiO2@g-C3N4. And ESR signals of (e) •O2 radicals, and (f) Proposed photocatalytic mechanism of the TiO2@g-C3N4 heterojunction based on the Z-scheme interface for NO degradation under visible light. Adapted with permission from (Pham, M.-T., et al. 2021). Copyright © 2021. Springer Nature.
Fig. 8.
(a) Synthesis of TiO2@g-C3N4. (b) DRS spectra. (c) The photocatalytic activity. (d) The photocatalytic stability of TiO2@g-C3N4. And ESR signals of (e) •O2 radicals, and (f) Proposed photocatalytic mechanism of the TiO2@g-C3N4 heterojunction based on the Z-scheme interface for NO degradation under visible light. Adapted with permission from (Pham, M.-T., et al. 2021). Copyright © 2021. Springer Nature.

4.2 Water disinfection

The g-C3N4 is a metal-free photocatalyst that works in visible light to kill bacteria, viruses, and microalgae, making it a good choice for long-term water disinfection (Li et al., 2016; Ong et al., 2016; Mittal and Dutta 2021). Recent research has looked at how it kills germs and how it could be used in environmentally friendly water treatment systems (Zhang et al., 2019). For instance, Li et al. created an Ag2WO4/g-C3N4 composite that works with visible light and kills all the E. coli in 90 min. This was possible because the charges were better separated, and the two materials worked together. This combination has a lot of promise as a solar-powered photocatalyst for cleaning water of microbes (Li et al., 2017).

Fig. 9(a) illustrates the proposed mechanism of ROS-mediated photocatalytic disinfection by Ag2WO4/g-C3N4 under visible light, while Fig. 9(b) confirms the involvement of specific reactive species through scavenger studies. Figs. 9(c-h) provides Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) evidence of progressive E. coli cell damage, Fig. 9(i) demonstrates the catalyst’s stability over multiple cycles, and Fig. 9(j) quantifies the high disinfection efficiency achieved (Li et al., 2017).

Under visible light irradiation, (a) Mechanism of photocatalytic disinfection treated with Ag2WO4/g-C3N4 composite. (b) Photocatalytic inactivation efficiency against E. coli. SEM images of E. coli treated with Ag2WO4/g-C3N4 for (c) 0 min, (d) 30 min, (e) 45 min, (f) 60 min, (g) 75 min, and (h) 90 min. The red arrows indicate deformation, pore-forming, and fracture of E. coli cells. The yellow double arrows indicate the length of E. coli cells. (i) Stability of Ag2WO4(5%)/g-C3N4 composite during five consecutive photocatalytic disinfections. (j) Photocatalytic disinfection efficiency against E. coli (107 cfu/mL) with photocatalysts (100 μg/mL). Adapted with permission from (Li, Y., et al. 2017). (License No. 60574811672).
Fig. 9.
Under visible light irradiation, (a) Mechanism of photocatalytic disinfection treated with Ag2WO4/g-C3N4 composite. (b) Photocatalytic inactivation efficiency against E. coli. SEM images of E. coli treated with Ag2WO4/g-C3N4 for (c) 0 min, (d) 30 min, (e) 45 min, (f) 60 min, (g) 75 min, and (h) 90 min. The red arrows indicate deformation, pore-forming, and fracture of E. coli cells. The yellow double arrows indicate the length of E. coli cells. (i) Stability of Ag2WO4(5%)/g-C3N4 composite during five consecutive photocatalytic disinfections. (j) Photocatalytic disinfection efficiency against E. coli (107 cfu/mL) with photocatalysts (100 μg/mL). Adapted with permission from (Li, Y., et al. 2017). (License No. 60574811672).

Furthermore, Liu et al. fabricated a vertical Z-scheme TiO2/g-C3N4 heterojunction that achieved nearly complete E. coli inactivation within 30 min under solar light. The enhanced disinfection was attributed to efficient charge separation and increased generation of reactive species through intimate 2D interface contact (Liu et al., 2019). Xu et al. developed a PN/Ag composite membrane incorporating N-doped carbon dots/g-C3N4 and Ag2C2O4, achieving over 7-log inactivation of E. coli and S. aureus within 80 min under visible light (Xu et al., 2022). Also, the composites an Ag2WO4/g-C3N4, TiO2/g-C3N4, and N-doped carbon dots/g-C3N4 and Ag2C2O4 achieved exceptional potential for solar-driven water disinfection by integrating efficient charge separation, Z-scheme pathways, and ROS-mediated antimicrobial mechanisms.

4.3 Surface sterilization

Surface contamination plays a major role in the transmission of infectious agents and food spoilage, necessitating effective disinfection methods suitable for occupied spaces (Basak et al., 2024). Also, g-C3N4 photocatalysts are emerging as promising materials for continuous, non-toxic, visible-light-driven surface sterilization. For instance, Wu et al. constructed a MnO2/g-C3N4 heterojunction on Ti implants that achieved over 99% antibacterial efficiency under visible light by enhancing ROS generation and oxidizing bacterial glutathione (GSH). This biocompatible, cost-effective coating offers a promising non-antibiotic approach for medical surface sterilization (Wu et al., 2019). Fig. 10(a) shows that adding Bi2MoO6 and g-C3N4/Bi2MoO6 made poly (ethylene-co-vinyl ether) coatings much better at killing germs when exposed to visible light. The 7% CNBP coating kept its antibacterial effectiveness at almost 90% throughout four cycles, Fig. 10(b). The proposed method of sterilization, which involves making effective e⁻/h⁺ pairs, has been shown in Fig. 10(c) (Wu et al., 2019). Heo et al. reported that 2D g-C3N4 achieved rapid disinfection of waterborne pathogens under visible light via enhanced ROS generation. Its application on filter paper surfaces showed strong potential for surface sterilization and hygienic water purification (Heo et al., 2019). Yang et al. made a metal-free homojunction g-C3N4 (HJ-CN) photocatalyst that was 3.79 times more effective against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and 3.23 times more effective against E. coli under visible light. This was because it improved charge separation and selective bacterial adhesion, which reduced the distance that ROS could diffuse (Yang et al., 2023). Moreover, the g-C3N4-based photocatalysts offer a sustainable, for environmental disinfection across air, water, and surface systems. By leveraging heterojunction design, doping, and composite formation, these materials achieve efficient ROS generation, enabling rapid pathogen inactivation while maintaining stability and reusability. Their eco-friendly, broad-spectrum activity positions g-C3N4 as a promising alternative to conventional chemical disinfectants for future public health and environmental safety applications.

(a) The sterilization rate of composite coating under visible light irradiation for 4 h. (b) The sterilization rate of the reused 7% CNBP coating for four cycles under visible light irradiation for 3 h. (c) The mechanisms of g-C3N4/Bi2MoO6 photocatalysts’ effect on bacteria under visible light irradiation. Adapted with permission from (Wu, B., et al. 2019). (License No. 6057700870253). (d) XRDN patterns of HJ-CN before and after photocatalytic reaction. (e) The photocatalytic sterilization performance of HJ-CN in water samples from Lihu Lake. Adapted with permission from (Yang, X., et al. 2023). (License No. 6057720094823).
Fig. 10.
(a) The sterilization rate of composite coating under visible light irradiation for 4 h. (b) The sterilization rate of the reused 7% CNBP coating for four cycles under visible light irradiation for 3 h. (c) The mechanisms of g-C3N4/Bi2MoO6 photocatalysts’ effect on bacteria under visible light irradiation. Adapted with permission from (Wu, B., et al. 2019). (License No. 6057700870253). (d) XRDN patterns of HJ-CN before and after photocatalytic reaction. (e) The photocatalytic sterilization performance of HJ-CN in water samples from Lihu Lake. Adapted with permission from (Yang, X., et al. 2023). (License No. 6057720094823).

HJ-CN’s structure stayed stable before and after photocatalytic treatment using X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis. Fig. 10(d) shows that almost all the bacteria were killed after 2 h.

5. Challenges and Future Directions

Despite the significant advancements in the development of g-C3N4-based photocatalysts for antimicrobial applications, various challenges must still be addressed to ensure their transition from laboratory studies to large-scale implementation. This section critically examines the key bottlenecks that limit their widespread adoption and offers forward-looking perspectives on overcoming these limitations.

5.1 Photocatalytic efficiency and charge recombination

One of the primary constraints limiting the effectiveness of g-C3N4 photocatalysts is the rapid recombination of photogenerated electron-hole pairs. This recombination greatly reduces the availability of charge carriers needed for the generation of ROS, which are essential for microbial inactivation. Although several strategies-such as heterojunction formation, metal deposition, and heteroatom doping-have been employed to mitigate this issue, achieving consistently high quantum yields remains a technical challenge. Continued research into bandgap tuning, defect engineering, and co-catalyst integration will be vital for enhancing charge separation and prolonging carrier lifetimes under visible light.

5.2 Stability, leaching, and reusability

The long-term stability and reusability of g-C3N4-based photocatalysts are critical for practical applications, particularly in water treatment and surface disinfection systems. Some modified systems exhibit photo corrosion or suffer from loss of activity after repeated cycles due to structural degradation or photocatalyst leaching. Additionally, the introduction of dopants or metal nanoparticles can raise concerns regarding environmental toxicity if these components are released into treated media. Designing robust, anchored, and environmentally inert systems with strong interfacial bonding and stable photocatalytic sites is essential to ensure operational durability and safety.

5.3 Selectivity toward microorganisms and resistance issues

While g-C3N4 photocatalysts demonstrate broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, their effectiveness can vary significantly depending on microbial species, physiological state, and environmental conditions. For instance, endospore-forming or biofilm-embedded microbes often exhibit greater resistance than planktonic bacteria. Additionally, although photocatalysis induces multi-target oxidative stress, reducing the likelihood of resistance development, the potential for adaptive microbial responses under sub-lethal exposure should not be overlooked. More systematic studies are needed to understand microbial response mechanisms and ensure that these materials do not inadvertently contribute to resistance evolution.

5.4 Integration with existing infrastructure

Translating laboratory-scale photocatalytic systems into real-world disinfection units involves numerous engineering and operational challenges. Integration into existing water treatment, air purification, and surface sterilization frameworks requires scalable reactor designs, optimized light sources, and stable photocatalyst immobilization. Moreover, the need for sufficient light penetration, especially in turbid or shaded environments, must be addressed. Strategies such as monolithic catalyst coatings, fiber-supported systems, and hybrid membranes offer promising pathways, but their performance must be validated under dynamic, field-relevant conditions.

5.5 Environmental and regulatory concerns

Before g-C3N4-based technologies can be widely implemented, environmental safety and regulatory compliance must be rigorously evaluated. This includes assessing the ecological toxicity of materials and their degradation products, particularly in systems employing metal or halogen dopants. Standardized testing protocols, life cycle assessments, and risk-benefit analyses are essential to guide safe usage. Regulatory frameworks for antimicrobial materials, especially those used in water and air disinfection, may also need to evolve to accommodate these emerging technologies.

5.6 Future research directions

To advance g-C3N4 photocatalysis toward practical antimicrobial solutions, future research should focus on a few key directions. First, exploring new synthetic routes for morphology-controlled, defect-engineered, and hybrid g-C3N4 structures can help overcome current efficiency limits. Second, the development of dual-function materials that combine photocatalysis with catalytic degradation, adsorption, or sensing can enhance multifunctionality and application scope. Third, coupling computational modeling with experimental studies may accelerate the rational design of more efficient systems. Finally, collaborative efforts among material scientists, microbiologists, and environmental engineers will be crucial to address real-world deployment challenges and ensure long-term efficacy and safety.

6. Conclusions

Visible-light-responsive g-C3N4 photocatalysts have emerged as promising materials for antimicrobial applications owing to their structural versatility, environmental compatibility, and robust photocatalytic performance. Substantial progress has been made in enhancing their efficacy through targeted modifications, including heteroatom doping, morphological tuning, and heterojunction engineering. These advances have significantly improved light absorption, charge separation, and ROS generation, leading to effective inactivation of bacteria, viruses, and fungi under mild conditions. Despite these developments, several barriers remain before large-scale implementation can be realized. These include limited long-wavelength light utilization, photocatalyst stability under environmental conditions, and the need for integration into existing water and air treatment systems. Furthermore, questions surrounding microbial resistance development, material safety, and regulatory compliance must be addressed. Moving forward, interdisciplinary research that combines materials science, microbiology, and environmental engineering will be essential to overcome current limitations. By addressing these challenges, g-C3N4-based photocatalysts hold the potential to become key components in the next generation of sustainable disinfection technologies.

Acknowledgment

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deputyship for Research and Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia for funding this research (IFKSU-HCRA-14-1).

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Mahatab Ali: Conceptualization, methodology, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing, supervision. Afreen Inam: Data curation, investigation, writing—original draft, visualization. Saad M. Alshehri: Methodology, validation, resources, writing—review and editing. Yoshio Bando: Supervision, funding acquisition, writing—review and editing, project administration. Tansir Ahamad: Conceptualization, writing—review and editing, validation.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have influenced the work presented in this paper.

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process

The authors confirm that there was no use of Artificial Intelligence (AI)-Assisted Technology for assisting in the writing or editing of the manuscript and no images were manipulated using AI.

References

  1. , , , , , , , , , . Development of Z-scheme BiVO4/g-C3N4/rGO heterojunction nanocomposite for enhanced photocatalytic degradation and antibacterial activity. Mater Res Bull. 2025;181:113119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.materresbull.2024.113119
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Akintunde, O.O., 2024. Development of visible-light-driven photocatalysts for the degradation of organic pollutants and the disinfection of microorganisms.
  3. , . A comprehensive review of graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4)–Metal oxide-based nanocomposites: potential for photocatalysis and sensing. Nanomaterials. 2022;12:294. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12020294
    [Google Scholar]
  4. , , , , , , , , , , , , , . A review on g-C3N4 and ZnO-modified g-C3N4 catalysts under visible irradiation: Precursor effects on properties and applications in sustainable developments. J Environ Chem Eng. 2023;11:110714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2023.110714
    [Google Scholar]
  5. , , . Advances in photocatalytic disinfection. Springer; .
  6. , , , , , , , , , , . Silver nanoparticle-embedded carbon nitride: antifungal activity on candida albicans and toxicity toward animal cells. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2024;16:25727-25739. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.4c02694
    [Google Scholar]
  7. , , , , , , , . Precursor-dependent fabrication of exfoliated graphitic carbon nitride (gCN) for enhanced photocatalytic and antimicrobial activity under visible light irradiation. J Cleaner Prod. 2023;422:138538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.138538
    [Google Scholar]
  8. , , . Physicochemical methods for disinfection of contaminated surfaces–a way to control infectious diseases. J Environ Health Sci Eng. 2024;22:53-64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40201-024-00893-2
    [Google Scholar]
  9. , , , , , , . Graphitic carbon nitride for photocatalytic air treatment. Materials (Basel). 2020;13:3038. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13133038
    [Google Scholar]
  10. , . Damage to cell membranes by pore-forming bacterial cytolysins. Prog Allergy. 1988;40:1-43.
    [Google Scholar]
  11. , , . Graphitic carbon nitride (gC3N4) as an emerging photocatalyst for sustainable environmental applications: A comprehensive review. RSC Sustainability. 2024;2:265-287.
    [Google Scholar]
  12. . Reactive oxygen species and cellular defense system. In: Free radicals in human health and disease Free radicals in human health and disease. New Delhi: Springer India; p. :17-29. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2035-0_2
    [Google Scholar]
  13. , , , , , , . A review of strategies to switch heterojunction system from type-II to S-scheme for photocatalytic applications. Mater Sci Semicond Process. 2025;186:109051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2024.109051
    [Google Scholar]
  14. , , . Oxidative stress in bacteria and protein damage by reactive oxygen species. Int Microbiol. 2000;3:3-8.
    [Google Scholar]
  15. , , , , , , , , . The photocatalytic antibacterial molecular mechanisms towards Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci by g‐C3N4 nanosheets: Insights from the cytomembrane, biofilm and motility disruption. Pest Manag Sci. 2021;77:2302-2314. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.6257
    [Google Scholar]
  16. , , , , , , . Antimicrobial mechanisms of g-C3N4 nanosheets against the oomycetes Phytophthora capsici: Disrupting metabolism and membrane structures and inhibiting vegetative and reproductive growth. J Hazard Mater. 2021;417:126121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126121
    [Google Scholar]
  17. , , , , , , , , . An overview on novel CsPbBr3-based perovskite photocatalyst for environmental and energy applications: Synthesis and enhancement strategy. J Ind Eng Chem 2025 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2025.05.047
    [Google Scholar]
  18. , , , , , , . The role of TiO2 and gC3N4 bimetallic catalysts in boosting antibiotic resistance gene removal through photocatalyst assisted peroxone process. Sci Rep. 2024;14:22897. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-74147-4
    [Google Scholar]
  19. , , , , , , . Graphitic carbon nitride-based nanocomposites as visible-light driven photocatalysts for environmental purification. Environ Sci: Nano. 2017;4:1455-1469. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7en00255f
    [Google Scholar]
  20. , , , , . Immobilization of polymeric g-C3N4 on structured ceramic foam for efficient visible light photocatalytic air purification with real indoor illumination. Environ Sci Technol. 2014;48:10345-10353. https://doi.org/10.1021/es502290f
    [Google Scholar]
  21. , , , , , . g-C3N4: Properties, pore modifications, and photocatalytic applications. Nanomaterials (Basel). 2021;12:121. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12010121
    [Google Scholar]
  22. , , , , , , , , . Designing ultrathin Ag-embedded g-C3N4 nanocomposites for enhanced disinfection performance under visible light. J Mol Struct. 2023;1276:134810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2022.134810
    [Google Scholar]
  23. , , , , , , , . A review of the use of semiconductors as catalysts in the photocatalytic inactivation of microorganisms. Catalysts. 2021;11:1498. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11121498
    [Google Scholar]
  24. , , , , , . Porous self-floating 3D Ag2O/g-C3N4 hydrogel and photocatalytic inactivation of microcystis aeruginosa under visible light. Chem Eng J. 2021;404:126509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.126509
    [Google Scholar]
  25. , , . Graphitic carbon nitride (g‐C3N4) reinforced polymer nanocomposite systems—A review. 41 2020:430-442. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.25410
    [Google Scholar]
  26. , , , , , , , , . Z-scheme heterojunction g-C3N4-TiO2 reinforced chitosan/poly(vinyl alcohol) film: Efficient and recyclable for fruit packaging. Int J Biol Macromol. 2024;268:131627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.131627
    [Google Scholar]
  27. , , , , , , . Photocatalytic degradation and antibacterial properties of Fe3+-doped alkalized carbon nitride. Nanomaterials (Basel). 2020;10:1751. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10091751
    [Google Scholar]
  28. , , , , , , , , . Developing high photocatalytic antibacterial Zn electrodeposited coatings through Schottky junction with Fe3+-doped alkalized g-C3N4 photocatalysts. Nano Materials Sci. 2023;5:177-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoms.2022.01.004
    [Google Scholar]
  29. , , , , , , , . Interfacial Co-N bond bridged CoB/g-C3N4 Schottky junction with modulated charge transfer dynamics for highly efficient photocatalytic Staphylococcus aureus inactivation. Chem Eng J. 2021;422:130029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.130029
    [Google Scholar]
  30. , , , , , , . Enhanced photocatalytic and antibacterial activity of acridinium-grafted g-C3N4 with broad-spectrum light absorption for antimicrobial photocatalytic therapy. Acta Biomater. 2022;146:370-384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2022.03.052
    [Google Scholar]
  31. , , , , , , , , , . Novel magnetic Fe3O4/g-C3N4/MoO3 nanocomposites with highly enhanced photocatalytic activities: Visible-light-driven degradation of tetracycline from aqueous environment. PLoS One. 2020;15:e0237389. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237389
    [Google Scholar]
  32. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Shape-controlled assemblies of graphitic carbon nitride polymer for efficient sterilization therapies of water microbial contamination via 2D g-C3N4 under visible light illumination. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl. 2019;104:109846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.109846
    [Google Scholar]
  33. , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Exfoliated polymeric carbon nitride nanosheets for photocatalytic applications. ACS Appl Nano Mater. 2024;7:7442-7452. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.4c00133
    [Google Scholar]
  34. , , , , . Highly efficient visible light active Cu–ZnO/SgC3N4 nanocomposites for efficient photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants. RSC Adv. 2021;11:37254-37267. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ra07203j
    [Google Scholar]
  35. . Biocidal agents used for disinfection can enhance antibiotic resistance in gram-negative species. Antibiotics (Basel). 2018;7:110. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics7040110
    [Google Scholar]
  36. , , , , , . Graphitic carbon nitride-based materials for photocatalytic antibacterial application. Materials Sci Eng: R: Reps. 2021;145:100610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2021.100610
    [Google Scholar]
  37. , , , , , . Metabolomics reveals synergy between Ag and g-C3N4 in Ag/g-C3N4 composite photocatalysts: A unique feature among Ag-doped biocidal materials. Metabolomics. 2021;17:53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11306-021-01804-4
    [Google Scholar]
  38. , , , , , , , , , , . The role of reactive oxygen species in the biological activity of antimicrobial agents: An updated mini review. Chem Biol Interact. 2020;320:109023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbi.2020.109023
    [Google Scholar]
  39. , , , , , . Visible-light-mediated modification and manipulation of biomacromolecules. Chem Rev. 2022;122:1752-1829. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00357
    [Google Scholar]
  40. , , , , . Efficient bacterial inactivation with S-doped g-C3N4 nanosheets under visible light irradiation. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2022;29:34637-34650. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-18092-z
    [Google Scholar]
  41. , , , , , . Rapid inactivation of bacteria by MoS2/g-C3N4 nanohybrid structures driven by visible light. Sci Rep. 2025;15:9266. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-93489-1
    [Google Scholar]
  42. , , , , , , . Efficient water disinfection with Ag2WO4-doped mesoporous g-C3N4 under visible light. J Hazard Mater. 2017;338:33-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.05.011
    [Google Scholar]
  43. , , , , , . Visible-light-driven photocatalytic inactivation of MS2 by metal-free g-C3N4: Virucidal performance and mechanism. Water Res. 2016;106:249-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.10.009
    [Google Scholar]
  44. , , , . Comparative performance and mechanism of bacterial inactivation induced by metal-free modified g-C3N4 under visible light: Escherichia coli versus staphylococcus aureus. Chemosphere. 2021;265:129060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129060
    [Google Scholar]
  45. . Design, fabrication and applications of efficient conductive polymers for photocatalytic antimicrobials. The University of Western Ontario (Canada); .
  46. , , , , , , , . Two-dimensional g-C3N4/TiO2 nanocomposites as vertical Z-scheme heterojunction for improved photocatalytic water disinfection. Catalysis Today. 2019;335:243-251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2018.11.053
    [Google Scholar]
  47. , , , , . How antimicrobial resistance is linked to climate change: An overview of two intertwined global challenges. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2023;20:1681. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20031681
    [Google Scholar]
  48. , , , . Environmental and health impacts of air pollution: A review. Front Public Health. 2020;8:14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00014
    [Google Scholar]
  49. , . Type II heterojunctions in the GaInAsSb/GaSb system. Semicond Sci Technol. 1994;9:1279-1295. https://doi.org/10.1088/0268-1242/9/7/001
    [Google Scholar]
  50. , , , , , , , . Ag-doped graphitic carbon nitride photocatalyst with remarkably enhanced photocatalytic activity towards antibiotic in hospital wastewater under solar light. J Ind Eng Chem. 2019;80:597-605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2019.08.037
    [Google Scholar]
  51. , . Synthesis, structure, and selected photocatalytic applications of graphitic carbon nitride: A review. J Mater Sci: Mater Electron. 2021;32:18512-18543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-021-06508-y
    [Google Scholar]
  52. , . Photocatalytic systems: Reactions, mechanism, and applications. RSC Adv. 2024;14:20609-20645. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ra03259d
    [Google Scholar]
  53. , , , , , , , , . Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4)-based nanostructured materials for photodynamic inactivation: Synthesis, efficacy and mechanism. Chem Eng J. 2021;404:126528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.126528
    [Google Scholar]
  54. , . Sources of air pollutants: impacts and solutions. In: The handbook of environmental chemistry, Air pollutants in the context of one health The handbook of environmental chemistry, Air pollutants in the context of one health. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland; p. :75-121. https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2024_1127
    [Google Scholar]
  55. , , , , . Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4)-Based photocatalysts for artificial photosynthesis and environmental remediation: Are we a step closer to achieving sustainability? Chem Rev. 2016;116:7159-7329. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00075
    [Google Scholar]
  56. , , , . Mitochondria, oxidative stress and cell death. Apoptosis. 2007;12:913-922. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10495-007-0756-2
    [Google Scholar]
  57. , , , , , , , , . Enhancing the visible light photocatalytic activity of TiO2-based coatings by the addition of exfoliated g-C3N4. Catalysts. 2024;14:333. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14050333
    [Google Scholar]
  58. , , , . Air pollutants all are chemical compounds hazardous to ecosystem. 2014:729-744.
    [Google Scholar]
  59. , , , . Noble metal–free doped graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) for efficient photodegradation of antibiotics: Progress, limitations, and future directions. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2023;30:25546-25558. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20170-9
    [Google Scholar]
  60. , , , , , . Rapid and scalable fabrication of TiO2@g-C3N4 heterojunction for highly efficient photocatalytic NO removal under visible light. Aerosol Air Qual Res. 2021;21:210276. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.210276
    [Google Scholar]
  61. , , , , . Novel heterostructured metal doped MgFe2O4@g-C3N4 nanocomposites with superior photo-Fenton preformance for antibiotics removal: One-step synthesis and synergistic mechanism. J Environ Manage. 2022;321:115907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115907
    [Google Scholar]
  62. , , , , . Molecular mechanisms of ultraviolet radiation‐induced DNA damage and repair. J Nucleic Acids. 2010;2010 https://doi.org/10.4061/2010/592980
    [Google Scholar]
  63. . Two-dimensional nanomaterials for antibacterial and antimicrobial activity for water contaminants disinfection. In: Advanced two-dimensional nanomaterials for environmental and sensing applications Advanced two-dimensional nanomaterials for environmental and sensing applications. Boca Raton: CRC Press; p. :234-280. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003436942-12
    [Google Scholar]
  64. , , , , , , , . Urban wastewater treatment plants as hotspots for antibiotic resistant bacteria and genes spread into the environment: A review. Sci Total Environ. 2013;447:345-360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.01.032
    [Google Scholar]
  65. , , , , . Effect of Ag/ZnO-Graphitic carbon nitride on antimicrobial activity under visible light. KEM. 2020;858:116-121. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.858.116
    [Google Scholar]
  66. , , , , . Advancements in graphene-based photocatalytic disinfection: Performance enhancement, integration, and challenges. In: Advanced structured materials, Graphene-based photocatalysts Advanced structured materials, Graphene-based photocatalysts. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland; p. :441-479. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-66260-7_19
    [Google Scholar]
  67. , , , , , , , , , . Synergy between dual Z-scheme heterostructured Vo-Bi2WO6/Bi2S3/Ag2S@Chitosan for the effective degradation of fuchsin basic dye. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng. 2025;175:106265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2025.106265
    [Google Scholar]
  68. , , , , , , , , . Current perspective in metal oxide based photocatalysts for virus disinfection: A review. J Environ Manage. 2022;308:114617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114617
    [Google Scholar]
  69. , . Doping of graphitic carbon nitride with non-metal elements and its applications in photocatalysis. Catalysts. 2020;10:1119. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal10101119
    [Google Scholar]
  70. , , , , , , , , . High surface area g-C3N4 nanosheets as superior solar-light photocatalyst for the degradation of parabens. Appl Phys A. 2023;129 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-023-07032-y
    [Google Scholar]
  71. , , , , , , , , . A review of g‐C3N4‐based photocatalytic materials for photocatalytic CO2 reduction. Carbon Neutralization. 2024;3:557-583. https://doi.org/10.1002/cnl2.121
    [Google Scholar]
  72. , , , , , , , , . State-of-the-art progress in photocatalytic hydrogen generation using graphene quantum dots. J Ind Eng Chem 2025 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2025.07.024
    [Google Scholar]
  73. , , , , . Mechanisms on the enhanced sterilization performance of fluorocarbon resin composite coatings modified by g-C3N4/Bi2MoO6 under the visible-light. J Photochem Photobiol A: Chem. 2018;350:10-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochem.2017.09.043
    [Google Scholar]
  74. , , , , , . Recent advances in the design and preparation of graphitic carbon nitride for photocatalysis. Chem Commun (Camb). 2025;61:1509-1532. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4cc04699d
    [Google Scholar]
  75. , , , , , , , , , . Antimicrobial strategies centered around reactive oxygen species–bactericidal antibiotics, photodynamic therapy, and beyond. FEMS microbiology reviews. 2013;37:955-989.
    [Google Scholar]
  76. . The antibiotic resistance crisis: Part 1: Causes and threats. P T. 2015;40:277-283.
    [Google Scholar]
  77. , , , , , , , . Activation of biologically relevant levels of reactive oxygen species by Au/g-C3N4 hybrid nanozyme for bacteria killing and wound disinfection. Biomaterials. 2017;113:145-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.10.041
    [Google Scholar]
  78. , . Post-treatment disinfection technologies for sustainable removal of antibiotic residues and antimicrobial resistance bacteria from hospital wastewater. Heliyon. 2023;9:e15360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15360
    [Google Scholar]
  79. , , , , , , , , , , , . The enhanced photocatalytic properties of MnO2/g-C3N4 heterostructure for rapid sterilization under visible light. J Hazard Mater. 2019;377:227-236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.05.074
    [Google Scholar]
  80. , , , , , , , , . Tuning of graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) for photocatalysis: A critical review. Arab J Chem. 2023;16:104542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2023.104542
    [Google Scholar]
  81. , , , , . g-C3N4@CuO electrostatic self-assembly toward Ralstonia solanacearum: Insights from cytomembrane and motility disruption. Pest Manag. Sci. 2024;80:3107-3115. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.8047
    [Google Scholar]
  82. , , , , , , , . Rapid photocatalytic inactivation of e. coli by polyethyleneimine grafted O-doped g-C3N4: Synergetic effects of the boosted reactive oxygen species production and adhesion performance. Appl Surf Sci. 2022;573:151496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2021.151496
    [Google Scholar]
  83. , , , . Facile synthesis of g-C3N4/Ag2C2O4 heterojunction composite membrane with efficient visible light photocatalytic activity for water disinfection. Chemosphere. 2022;295:133841. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133841
    [Google Scholar]
  84. , , , , , , . Facile fabrication of acidified g-C3N4/g-C3N4 hybrids with enhanced photocatalysis performance under visible light irradiation. Appl Catal B: Environ. 2016;193:22-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2016.03.060
    [Google Scholar]
  85. , , , , , , , . Insights into the disinfection enhancement of homojunction g-C3N4 photocatalyst from charge transfer regulation and cell-surface attachment. Chem Eng J. 2023;474:145771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.145771
    [Google Scholar]
  86. , , , , , . Recent advances in g‐C3N4‐based photocatalysts for pollutant degradation and bacterial disinfection: design strategies, mechanisms, and applications. 18 2022:2105089. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/smll.202105089
    [Google Scholar]
  87. , , , , , , . Facile synthesis of highly crystalline g-C3N4 nanosheets with remarkable visible light photocatalytic activity for antibiotics removal. Chemosphere. 2021;271:129503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129503
    [Google Scholar]
  88. , , , , , , . AgBr/g-C3N4 nanocomposites for enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic inactivation of Escherichia coli. RSC Adv. 2018;8:34428-34436. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ra06923a
    [Google Scholar]
  89. , , , , , . Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4)-based photocatalysts for water disinfection and microbial control: A review. Chemosphere. 2019;214:462-479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.09.137
    [Google Scholar]
  90. , , , . Different inactivation behaviors and mechanisms of representative pathogens (Escherichia coli bacteria, human adenoviruses and Bacillus subtilis spores) in g-C3N4-based metal-free visible-light-enabled photocatalytic disinfection. Sci Total Environ. 2021;755:142588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142588
    [Google Scholar]
  91. , , , , , . Impact of reactive oxygen species on cell activity and structural integrity of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria in electrochemical disinfection system. Chem Eng J. 2023;451:138879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.138879
    [Google Scholar]
  92. , , , , , , . Visible-light-driven photocatalytic water disinfection toward escherichia coli by nanowired g-C3N4 film. Front Nanotechnol. 2021;3 https://doi.org/10.3389/fnano.2021.684788
    [Google Scholar]
  93. , , , , , . In-situ growth of all-solid Z-scheme heterojunction photocatalyst of Bi7O9I3/g-C3N4 and high efficient degradation of antibiotic under visible light. Appl Catal B: Environ. 2020;261:118212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2019.118212
    [Google Scholar]
  94. , , . TiO2@g-C3N4/SiO2 with superior visible-light degradation of formaldehyde for indoor humidity control coatings. Materials Today Sustainability. 2023;24:100496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtsust.2023.100496
    [Google Scholar]
  95. , , , . Environmental and human health impacts of volatile organic compounds: A perspective review. Chemosphere. 2023;313:137489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137489
    [Google Scholar]

Fulltext Views
1,838

PDF downloads
621
View/Download PDF
Download Citations
BibTeX
RIS
Show Sections

Suggested read for related articles: