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Research Article
2026
:38;
17382025
doi:
10.25259/JKSUS_1738_2025

Phytochemical constituents, cytotoxic, antibacterial and antioxidant activities of the leaves and fruits of Ficus salicifolia

, , ,
aDepartment of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia

*Corresponding author: E-mail address: aqahtan@ksu.edu.sa (A.A.Q)

Received: , Accepted: ,
© 2026 Journal of King Saud University – Science - Published by Scientific Scholar
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This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 License, which allows others to remix, transform, and build upon the work non-commercially, as long as the author is credited and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.

Abstract

The investigation aimed to assess the phytochemical content, antioxidant properties, and antibacterial and cytotoxicity of methanolic extracts of Ficus salicifolia fruits and leaves. Quantitative phytochemical examination indicated that the fruit extract possessed higher levels of phenolics (103.98 mg GAE/g DW), and tannins (43.02 mg TAE/g DW) compared to the leaf extract. Conversely, the leaf extract had higher levels of flavonoids (34.17 ± 0.89 mg QE/g) and flavanols (17.72 mg RE/g) than the fruit extract. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) identified and quantified gallic acid, rutin, and quercetin. Fruits had higher rutin levels, while leaves had more gallic acid and quercetin. Antioxidant activity was assessed using: 2,2-diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). The fruit extract showed better antioxidant activity in DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays, while the leaf extract had a higher TAC (319.24 AAE/g DW) compared to the fruit extract (224.48 AAE/g DW). Cytotoxicity, tested with the MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] assay against MCF7 cells, showed IC50 values of 114.47 ± 3.45μg/mL for fruit extracts and 255.32 ± 2.76 μg/mL for leaf extracts. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis detected twenty-three and twenty-two phytochemical substances in fruit and leaf extracts, respectively.

Keywords

Antibacterial
Antioxidant capability
Ficus salicifolia
HPLC

1. Introduction

People have relied on medicinal plants to treat and prevent diseases. They provide healthcare for millions of people worldwide, particularly in underdeveloped nations. Roughly 60% of the world’s plant species have therapeutic potential and benefits for human health (Hao and Xiao 2018). These plants contain several bioactive compounds that help treat a range of diseases and can serve as essential ingredients in the formulation of novel pharmaceuticals and food additives (Bubalo et al., 2018). According to the WHO, over 80% of people in low- and middle-income countries use medicinal herbs for basic health care, while 40% or more of pharmaceutical compounds in developed countries are derived from plants (Rout et al., 2000).

Ficus salicifolia Vahl is an evergreen tree known as “Athab” in Arabic and is a member of the genus Ficus (Moraceae family). These trees often grow on hills and rocky slopes and may grow up to 20 meters in height (van Greuning 1990), and is distributed in tropical Africa, Egypt, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia. This plant is traditionally used in many countries to treat skin allergies, chest inflammation, indigestion, scorpion stings, bruises, warts, cough, diarrhea, eukoderma, and as an eyewash (Youssef 2013, Ahmed et al., 2016, AlGhalban et al., 2021, Alzahrani et al., 2021). Phytochemical studies have shown that F. salicifolia rich in diverse range of bioactive including flavonoids, glycosides, alkaloids, phenolics, tannins, terpenes, coumarins, saponins, bergapten, sterols, psoralene, lupeol and amino acids (Abu-Mustafa et al., 1963, Ahmed et al., 2016, Alzahrani et al., 2021). Several studies have demonstrated that the genus Ficus possesses various biological activities, including antioxidant (Tamuly et al., 2015, Ginting et al., 2020, Ogunlaja et al., 2022), anticancer (AlGhalban et al., 2021), antidiabetic, thrombolytic (Al-Qahtani et al., 2023), antipyretic (Bafor et al., 2010), anti-diarrheal (Mandal and Ashok Kumar 2002), anticonvulsant (Singh and Goel 2009), antimalarial, antitrypanosomal (Mbosso Teinkela et al., 2018), antiulcer (Saha and Goswami 2010), anti-inflammatory (Lansky et al., 2008, Patil and Patil 2011), and antimicrobial activities (Imran et al., 2014, Al-matani et al., 2015, Al-Qahtani et al., 2023).

The purpose of this investigation is to utilize ultraviolet (UV -Vis) spectrophotometry, Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC to identify and characterize the chemical composition of a methanolic extract of F. cordata ssp. salicifolia leaves and fruits. In vitro biological assays, including antibacterial, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity activities, were also performed.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Collection, preparation and extraction of fruits and leaves of F. salicifolia

Fruits and leaves of F. salicifolia were obtained from three sites in lower Shada Mountain (19°43’57.0”N 41°22’54.2”E) in Al-Baha region, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. finely ground into a uniform powder after drying and were extracted with concentrated methanol for twenty-four hours with periodic shaking at 24°C. All extracts were filtered and subsequently dried with a rotary evaporator.

2.2 Phytochemical Analysis

2.2.1 Phenols

TPC (The total phenolic content) was quantified employing the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (FCR) (Singleton et al., 1999). In brief, FCR (100 µL), 100 µL of extract, 1500 µL of double-distilled water (DDW), and 300 µL of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3, 20%) were mixed and incubated for thirty minutes in the dark. A UV–Vis spectrophotometer was used to measure absorbance at 765 nm. TPC was quantified using a calibration curve prepared with gallic acid (Fig. 1a), applying the linear regression equation (Y = 0.0024x+0.0046 with R2 = 0.9992), and expressed as mg per gram of dry weight (GAE/g DW).

Standard curve of (a) gallic acid, (b) tannic acid, (c) quercetin, and (d) rutin.
Fig. 1. Standard curve of (a) gallic acid, (b) tannic acid, (c) quercetin, and (d) rutin.

2.2.2 Tannins

FCR was employed to determine the TTC (total tannin content) using a method reported earlier (Chandran and Indira 2016) with minor modifications. To the extract (0.100 mL), 0.100 mL of FCR and 1.5 mL of DDW were added and allowed to stand for ten minutes before the addition 0.300 mL of 35% Na2CO3. Then, the absorbance was read at 700 nm following a 30 min incubation in dark. The regression equation (Fig. 1b) of the tannic acid calibration curve (Y = 0.0017+0.00179 with R2 = 9997) was used to determine the TTC results and was calculated as mg TAE/g DW.

2.2.3 Flavonoids

Total flavonoid content (TFC) was analyzed using AlCl₃ (Miliauskas et al., 2004). A 0.75 mL extract was mingled with 0.75 mL AlCl₃ (2%) and after absorbance at 420 nm were taken after 30 min. A linear regression equation (Y = 0.0169x-0.0337 with R2 = 0.9991) based on the calibration curve generated with quercetin (Fig. 1c) was employed to determine TFC, which was presented as mg QE/g DW.

2.2.4 Flavonols

TF (Total flavonol content) in the extracts was measured following the method described by (Miliauskas et al., 2004). Plant extract (1.5 mL) was blended with 3 mL sodium acetate solution (5%) and 1.5 mL AlCl₃ (2%) and left for two hours at 20°C after shaking well. Using a UV-vis spectrophotometer, the absorbance the yellowish color was read at 440 nm. TF was determined using a linear regression equation (Y = 0.0055x-0.0267 with R2 = 0.9989) derived from standard curve with various concentrations of rutin (Fig. 1d).

2.2.5 HPLC analysis

The Agilent 1290 liquid chromatographic system was employed to analyze quercetin, rutin, and gallic acid in methanolic extracts of F. salicifolia fruits and leaves. were performed in line with the approach of (Salih et al., 2023), with minor changes. The mobile phase comprised of 1% aqueous acetic acid and methanol in a 40:60 volume ratio, with a 1 mL/min flow rate and a 10-minute run time. Extracts were injected at 2 µL and examined at 274 nm for gallic acid identification and 278 nm for quercetin and rutin identification.

2.2.6 GC-MS analysis

Fruit and leaf extract of F. salicifolia was put into a GC-MS vial and dried with nitrogen air. Using 100 µl of methoxyl amine hydrochloride in pyridine at a ratio of (1:10), the dried vial was derivatized. After 10 minutes of vortexing, the combination was incubated at 24°C for 16 hours. After that, 100 µl of derivatizing agent BSTFA+TMCS was inserted to vial and vortexed again for one hour, and maintained on a hot plate at 60°C.

GC-MS was used to detect phytocompounds in methanolic extracts of F. salicifolia fruits and leaves. An Elite-5MS column was filled with 1 µL of the extract. The carrier gas (Helium gas) flow was at a constant rate of 1 mL/minute. The temperature started at 2-minute hold at 40°C and then rose to 200°C at a rate of 5°C/minute. After a 2-minute plateau at 200°C, the temperature was ramped to 300°C at the same rate and held for an additional 2 minutes. The total run time for analyzing samples was 29 minutes. 

2.3 Antioxidant assays

2.3.1 2,2-diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay

The DPPH radical scavenging capacity of F. salicifolia extracts was assessed using the technique described by (Liyana-Pathirana and Shahidi 2005). One milliliter of the extract (25–400 µg/mL) was combined with 1 mL of DPPH solution (50 mg in 100 mL methanol). After leaving the mixture in the dark for twenty minutes, the absorbance (at 517) was read spectrophotometrically. The anti-DPPH assay of the F. salicifolia extract was quantified using the following Eq (1).

(1)
DPPH scavenging capacity  (%)= AC − AE AC ×100.

where AC is absorbance of DPPH + methanol (control) and AE absorbance of plant extract.

2.3.2 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging assay

The ABTS radical scavenging capacity of F. salicifolia fruit and leaf extracts were assessed using the (Re et al., 1999) technique. To make the stock solution, 5 ml of ABTS (7 mM in DDW) and 88 µL of potassium persulfate (140 mM) were mixed and incubated at room temperature for 16 hours. To dilute the solution, 1 ml of ABTS+ stock was combined with 75 ml of methanol, adjusting the absorbance to 0.700 ± 0.020 at 734 nm. One milliliter of the extract (25–400 µg/mL) was added to 1 mL of the ABTS solution, and the absorbance (at 734 nm) were recorded after 7 minutes. The ABTS⁺ radical scavenging activity was then calculated using the previously described equation.

2.3.3 Determination of total antioxidant capacity (TAC)

TAC was determined by the phosphomolybdate method (Prieto et al., 1999). In brief, 0.15 mL of extract was mixed with 1.5 mL of phosphomolybdate and incubated for 90 minutes in a water bath at 95°C. After cooling, the sample mixtures were reordered at 695 nm. The data were represented as milligram of ascorbic acid (AA) equivalence (AAE/g extract).

2.3.4 Ferric reducing power assay (FRAP)

The FRAP was assessed using the methodology outlined by (Kenari et al., 2014). Each extract (1 ml) was mixed with 1 ml of C6FeK3N6 (1% w/v) and 1 ml of K-phosphate buffer (pH 6.6, 200 mM). After being vortexed, the solution was incubated at 50°C for 20 minutes. Following the addition of 1 mL of 10% (w/v) trichloroacetic acid (TCA), the reaction solution was centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 10 minutes. From the resulting supernatant, 1 mL was collected and mixed with 1 mL of (DDW) and 200 µL of 0.1% ferric chloride solution. The absorbance was subsequently measured at 700 nm.

2.4 Cytotoxicity assay

Cytotoxicity analysis was carried out using the procedure mentioned by (Mothana et al., 2019, Almarfadi et al., 2022), with some adjustments. The MCF-7 cell line was grown in DMEM containing L-glutamine (2 mM), FBS (10%), and penicillin–streptomycin (100 U/mL) at 37°C with a 5% carbon dioxide (CO2). The cytotoxicity of F. salicifolia fruit and leaf extracts (25-400 µg/mL) against MCF-7 cells was examined using the MTT assay. Following incubation, MTT solution was added to each well and the plates were incubated for an additional 4 hours. The resulting formazan crystals were then dissolved in DMSO, and absorbance was measured at 590 nm using an ELX-808 microplate reader (Biotek, USA).

(2)
The   formula   AC  −   A T A C × 100

Eq. (2) was used to determine cell viability (%), where AC is absorbance of untreated control and AT absorbance of treated cells.

2.5 Antibacterial activity 

Antibacterial activity of F. salicifolia leaf and fruit extract was evaluated against five human pathogenic microbial strains: three gram-positive bacteria strains (Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212, Staph aureus ATCC 29213 and Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 12228, and Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212) and two-gram (-) bacteria strains (Salmonella typhimurium ATCC 14028 and Escherichia coli ATCC 25922) using the disk diffusion technique. To evaluate antibacterial activity, the plates were inspected for clear zones around the discs containing the test compounds. The size of each inhibition zone was measured in millimeters to determine the extent of antibacterial effect (Manandhar et al., 2019, Ali et al., 2023).

2.6 Determination of AA, soluble protein, and total sugar

The AA content of the leaf and fruit of F. salicifolia was determined using the procedure outlined in (Jagota and Dani 1982). Plant sample (0.2 g) was pulverized using liquid nitrogen and mixed with 2 mL of TCA (5%) before centrifugation at 10,000 rpm for 20 min. Supernatant (1 mL) was mixed with 10% TCA (4 mL) and centrifuged for five minutes at 3000 rpm following five minutes of incubation in an ice bath. Then, 0.5 ml of supernatant was treated with 200 µL of FCR and 2.0 mL Milli-Q water. After 10 min, the absorbance (at 760) of the solution was read. Finally, the concentration of AA was determined by a standard curve.

The soluble protein in fruit and leaf samples was determined using the previously described method (Lowry et al., 1951). Briefly, 0.100 g material was combined with 10 ml of DDW and incubated for two hours at 90°C. The solution was centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 10 minutes. The supernatant (1 ml) was added to 5 ml of an alkaline reagent consisting of Na2CO3 (2% in 0.1 N NaOH) and 1 ml of 0.5% (CuSO4.5H2O (0.5% in 1% sodium potassium tartrate) and Na2CO3 (2% in 0.1 N NaOH)). The solution was left for 15 min before adding 0.5 ml of 50% FCR and mixing immediately. Following a 30-minute interval, the absorbance was measured at 700 nm, with results calculated as milligrams per gram dry weight (mg/g DW).

The total sugar content of fruit and leaf was evaluated using the technique described in (Dubois et al., 1956). Sequentially, the plant material was added to 5 ml of 96% H2SO4 and 1 ml of 5% phenol. The solution was left for 20 minutes at 30°C. After letting the mixture sit for ten minutes, the absorbance at 490 nm was read. The sugar concentration in plant material was expressed as mg/g DW.

2.7 Statistical analysis

Every test was run in triplicate, and the results were displayed as an average ± standard deviation (SD). IBM SPSS (version 20) was used to statistically analyze the outcome using one-way ANOVA and Duncan’s. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to establish the relationship between bioactive compound content and their biological activity. Principal component analysis (PCA) biplot and heatmap were performed by using OriginPro 2024 and TBtools-II, respectively.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Phenolic compounds

Phenolic compounds are a wide class of plant secondary metabolites with numerous biological functions. These chemicals have been demonstrated to have a variety of characteristics, like antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-cancer, and neuroprotective (Vuolo et al., 2019, Choi et al., 2021, Shi et al., 2022). In this investigation, TPC, TFC, TTC, and TF were determined in the fruits and leaves of the methanolic extract of F. salicifolia. The TPC and TTC of the fruit extract were noticeably higher than those of the leaf extract (Table 1). Fruits are one of the primary sources of phenolic compounds, and their content varies depending on the fruit’s maturity level (Zerkani et al., 2022). The TPC of fruit and leaf extract was found to be 103.98 ± 0.73 mg/g and 85.10 ± 0.48 mg GAE/g, respectively. Similarly, The TTC of fruit and leaf extract was found to be 43.02 ± 0.33 and 34.81 ± 1.61 mg TAE/g, respectively. In contrast, leaf extract gave the highest TFC (34.17 ± 0.89 mg QE/g) and TF (17.72 mg RE/g) compared to the fruit extract. Similar findings were discovered in F. microcarpa, where the TPC and TFC in the fruits and leaves methanolic extract were 179 and 128 GAE mg/g and 6.1 and 9.4 RE mg/g, respectively (Ao et al., 2008). Compared to a previous study on F. cordata ssp. alicifolia (Alzahrani et al., 2021), our results indicated that the fruit and leaf extracts had a higher concentration of phenols and flavonoids. Fruit from six species of Ficus (F. auriculata, F. racemosa, F. maclellandii, F. semicordata, F. hirta, and F. nervosa) was found to have phenol levels ranging from 9.77 to 26.41 mg GAE/g and flavonoid levels ranging from 2.96 to 15.07 mg RE/g (Tamuly et al., 2015).

Table 1. Phenol, tannin, flavonoid, flavanol, rutin, quercetin, and gallic acid content in the fruits and leaves of F. salicifolia methanolic extract.
Fruits Leaves
Phenols (mg GAE/g DW) 103.98 ± 0.73a 85.10 ± 0.48b
Tannins (mg TAE/g DW) 43.02 ± 0.33a 34.81 ± 1.61b
Flavonoids (mg QE/g DW) 23.47 ± 0.58b 34.17 ± 0.89a
Flavanols (mg RE/g DW) 13.35 ± 0.85b 17.72 ± 0.59a
Rutin (µg/g DW) 1201.55 ± 21.97a 2.94 ± 0.76b
Quercetin (µg/g DW) 13.60 ± 1.48b 21.68 ± 2.18a
Gallic acid (µg/g DW) 11.05 ± 0.14b 44.06 ± 3.04a

The data present the average ± standard deviation (SD). a,b in the same row with different letters are significantly different at (p < 0.05).

Moreover, HPLC was used to quantify gallic acid, quercetin and rutin in the fruits and leaves of F. salicifolia methanolic extract (Table 1 and Figs. 2-4). The findings showed that the fruits and leaves of F. salicifolia contain gallic acid, rutin, and quercetin. These findings indicate that the leaf extract contained a higher content of gallic acid and quercetin compounds (44.06 and 21.68 µg, respectively) than the fruit extract (11.05 and 13.60 µg, respectively). However, the quantity of rutin present in the fruits was significantly larger (1201.55 µg) than the quantity found in the leaves (2.94 µg). In the literature, the stem of F. salicifolia has been shown to contain rutin, quercetin, and gallic acid (66.96, 27.28, and 7.9 ppm, respectively) (Ahmed et al., 2018). Oliveira et al., (2009) found that the F. carica fruit peels had a significantly higher concentration of rutin than the fruit pulps and leaves. Another study found that the quantity of rutin in F. carica fruits ranged from 0.521 mg/100 g DW in the azendjar variety to 5.817 mg/100 g DW in the taamriouth variety, while the amount of quercetin ranged from 0.235 to 0.475 mg/100 g DW, respectively (Kebal et al., 2022).

The selection of gallic acid, rutin, and quercetin as focus compounds in this study is based on their well-documented biological significance, their widespread occurrence in Ficus species, and their clear identification and quantification through HPLC in the current investigation. Gallic acid, identified as a prominent peak in the chromatograms of both fruit and leaf extracts (Fig. 2), is a phenolic compound known for its robust antioxidant properties, which mitigate oxidative stress by scavenging free radicals. Additionally, gallic acid exhibits significant anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities, making it an essential marker for evaluating the bioactivity of plant extracts (Zhang et al., 2019, Khorsandi et al., 2020). Its relatively higher concentration in the leaf extract compared to the fruit extract highlights its role in contributing to the observed antioxidant capacity. Rutin, a major flavonoid glycoside, exhibited the most intense peak in the fruit extract chromatogram (Fig. 3), underscoring its predominance in the fruit of Ficus salicifolia. Known for its ability to strengthen vascular health, scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS), and provide anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective benefits, rutin is a critical bioactive compound in Ficus species (Ganeshpurkar and Saluja 2017, Enogieru et al., 2018). Its significantly higher concentration in the fruit extract compared to the leaf extract aligns with the fruit’s superior antioxidant activity in assays such as DPPH and ABTS. Quercetin, identified as a distinct peak in the chromatograms of both extracts (Fig. 4), is a powerful flavonoid with antioxidant properties. Its role in mitigating chronic illnesses, including cancer, heart disease, and neurodegenerative conditions, has been widely recognized (Pandey and Rizvi 2009, Imani et al., 2021). The leaf extract had a higher quercetin content than the fruit extract, which correlated with its higher TAC in the study. The HPLC chromatograms provided clear separation and quantification of these three compounds, reinforcing their selection as representative bioactive compounds in this study. Moreover, integrating their chromatographic profiles into the discussion allows a direct correlation between their presence and the observed biological activities, such as antioxidant and cytotoxic effects. The differences in their concentrations between fruit and leaf extracts reflect their unique phytochemical compositions, which contribute distinctly to the pharmacological properties of Ficus salicifolia. These findings not only highlight the biological importance of gallic acid, rutin, and quercetin but also validate their selection as key markers for the phytochemical and functional profiling of the plant.

HPLC chromatograms: (a) gallic acid standard, (b) fruit extract, and (c) leaf extract.
Fig. 2. HPLC chromatograms: (a) gallic acid standard, (b) fruit extract, and (c) leaf extract.
HPLC chromatograms: (a) rutin standard, (b) fruit extract, and (c) leaf extract.
Fig. 3. HPLC chromatograms: (a) rutin standard, (b) fruit extract, and (c) leaf extract.
HPLC chromatograms: (a) Quercetin standard, (b) fruit extract, and (c) leaf extract.
Fig. 4. HPLC chromatograms: (a) Quercetin standard, (b) fruit extract, and (c) leaf extract.

3.2 GC–MS analysis

The therapeutic value of plants is assessed by comparing their biological activities with the phytochemicals they contain (Saxena et al., 2013). GC–MS is a technique for identifying phytochemical compounds in plant extracts. In the current study, GC-MS analysis confirmed the existence of 23 phytochemical compounds in the methanolic extracts of the fruits and 22 phytochemical compounds in the leaves extract (Table 2 and Fig. 5) of F. salicifolia. Ten Phytochemical compounds were found in both leaf and fruit extracts, namely psoralene, 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, 9-octadecenamide, 2-nonanone, hexadecanamide, 6(E),9(Z),13(E)-pendectriene, hexadecanoic acid, 3,3-dimethyl-2-azabicyclo[2.2.2]oct-5-ene-2-ol, octadecanoic acid, and 3-methyl-4-(methylthio)phenol, with area percents of 33.32, 13.33, 11.7, 9.16, 4.46, 4.04, 3.61, 1.9, 0.32 and 0.55% respectively, in leaves and 1.76, 2.67, 20.81, 6.77, 6.7, 25.81, 21.52, 0.88, 4.8 and 0.23% respectively, in fruits. Psoralene (33.32%) was the major compound in leaf extracts, while 6(E),9(Z),13(E)-pendectriene (25.81%) was the major compound in fruit extracts. The majority of the phytochemical components in F. salicifolia methanolic extracts have been shown to exhibit a variety of biological activities, including antifungal, antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties (Table 2).

Table 2. Phytochemical compounds identified in fruits and leaves extract of F. salicifolia through GC-MS.
No. RT* (min) Name of Compound Area % Structural formula Biological activities
Fruit Leaf Fruit Leaf
1 - 7.68 N,N-Dimethyl neopentylamine - 0.73 C7H17N
2 - 7.8 4-Amino-1-methyl-5-nitropyrazole - 1.11 C4H6N4O2
3 7.82 - N,N,2,2-tetramethpropylamine 0.6 - C7H17N
4 8.76 8.76 2-Nonanone 6.77 9.16 C9H18O
5 10.52 - 5-Acetyl-2-methyl-1h-imidazole 0.32 - C6H8N2O
6 10.63 10.52 3-Methyl-4-(methylthio)phenol 0.23 0.55 C8H10OS
7 - 10.62 Ethyl 7-methyl-6-hydroxy bicyclo[4.3.0]nonane-1-carboxylate - 0.47 C13H22O3
8 11.44 - 3-Oxobornyl acetate 0.08 - C12H18O3
9 - 11.69 Orthocaine - 0.65 C8H9NO3
10 11.7 - Methyl 4-aminosalicylate 0.33 - C8H9NO3
11 - 11.92 2-Hydroxy-4-acetoxybenzoic acid - 2.59 C9H8O5
12 11.93 - 2-(phenylthio)ethyl p-toluenesulfonate 1.48 - C15H16O3S2
13 12.08 - 2,6-Dihydroxybenzoic acid 0.3 - C7H6O4 Antioxidants and antimicrobial (Santoso et al., 2016)
14 12.16 12.15 3,3-Dimethyl-2-azabicyclo[2.2.2]oct-5-ene-2-ol 0.88 1.9 C9H15NO
15 - 15 1-Dodecene - 0.72 C12H24 Antibacterial (Togashi et al., 2007)
16 15.7 - Decanoic acid 0.76 - C10H20O2 Anti-tumor, antimicrobial and antifungal (Sinha et al., 2001, Yang et al., 2023)
17 16.78 - Tetradecanoic acid 0.28 - C14H28O2 Anticancer and antimicrobial activities (Javid et al., 2020)
18 17.59 17.67 Psoralene 1.76 33.82 C11H6O3 Leukoderma, psoriasis, vitiligo, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and anti-osteoporotic potential (Tripathi et al., 2023)
19 - 18.05 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecane - 0.48 C20H40
20 19.18 18.98 Hexadecanoic acid 21.52 3.91 C₁₆H₃₂O₂ Antioxidants, hypocholesterolemic (Siswadi and Saragih 2021)
21 19.94 - Eicosanoic acid 0.17 - C20H40O2
22 - 19.94 Bergapten - 4.82 C12H8O4 Anticancer, anti-inflammatory, hypolipemic, and antibacterial activities (Quetglas-Llabrés et al., 2022)
23 20.27 (Z,Z)-6,9-cis-3,4-Epoxynonadecadiene 0.777 - C19H34O
24 21.04 20.68 6(E),9(Z),13(E)-Pendectriene 25.81 4.04 C15H26
25 21.14 20.89 Octadecanoic acid 4.8 0.32 C18H36O2 Antibacterial (Ivanova et al., 2017)
26 21.25 21.03 Hexadecanamide 6.7 4.46 C16H33NO
27 22.88 - 13,14-Dichloro-behenamide 1.86 - C22H43Cl2NO
28 23.99 23.96 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid 2.67 13.33 C8H6O4
29 - 24.27 12-Hydroxy-stearamide - 0.94 C18H37NO2
30 25.04 - Caryophyllene epoxide 0.37 - C15H24O
31 - 25.24 1-Hexyl-2-nitrocyclohexane - 0.47 C12H23NO2 Anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities (Al-Wathnani et al., 2012, Ravisankar and Ester 2017)
32 25.9 25.85 9-Octadecenamide 20.81 11.7 C18H35NO Anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activities (Muzahid et al., 2023)
33 - 26.75 1-Octadecanol - 1.82 C18H38O Antioxidant and antibacterial activities (Casillas-Vargas et al., 2021)
34 27.31 - Hexadecane 0.7 - C16H34 Antioxidant and antibacterial activities (Yogeswari et al., 2012)
35 - 27.65 Lupeol - 2.01 C30H50O Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and anticancer (Dalimunthe et al., 2024)

*Retention time

GC-MS of fruits (a) and leaves (b) extract of F. salicifolia.
Fig. 5. GC-MS of fruits (a) and leaves (b) extract of F. salicifolia.

3.3 Antioxidant activity assay

Natural antioxidants are compounds found in many foods and plants that can protect the body by neutralizing free radicals and preventing them from causing further damage (Siddhuraju and Manian 2007). Many studies have demonstrated that plant extracts often contain high levels of natural antioxidants. Four in vitro tests -DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and TAC- were used in this investigation to evaluate the antioxidant potential of the methanolic extract of the fruits and leaves of F. salicifolia.

The results show the effectiveness of DPPH in assessing the antioxidant activity of fruit and leaf extracts of F. salicifolia at different doses (25-400 µg/ml). At a dose of 25 µg/ml, both the fruit and leaf extracts exhibited some level of antioxidant activity, with the fruit extract having a slightly higher value (6.83%) compared to the leaf extract (4.89%). The extracts’ ability to scavenge DPPH radicals increased in a dose-dependent manner. At a dose of 400 µg/ml, the fruit extract showed the maximum DPPH radical scavenging activity (85.42%) compared to the leaf extract at the same concentration (81.00%) (Fig. 6a). In the case of the ABTS radical, the results also demonstrated that both the fruit and leaf extracts of F. salicifolia showed increasing scavenging activity with increasing concentration (Fig. 6b). The methanolic extract of fruits and leaves exhibited the maximum percentage of inhibition (93.46 and 90.60%, respectively) at a dose of 400 µg/ml. The high efficacy of the fruit extract of F. salicifolia in scavenging DPPH and ABTS radicals is attributed to its high content of rutin. Rutin is known to possess strong antioxidant properties and can scavenge free radicals because it can transfer a hydrogen atom from its hydroxyl group (Yang et al., 2008, Enogieru et al., 2018, Choi et al., 2021). The antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds is one of their most significant characteristics, as they can stop oxidative damage to tissues and cells by absorbing free radicals and other reactive species. This characteristic may aid in the prevention of several illnesses, such as cancer, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular disease (Pandey and Rizvi 2009). Ginting et al., (2020) noted a similar result, in which the anti-ABTS and DPPH radical activities of F. elastica leaf extracts increased with increasing concentration. At a dose of 500 µg/ml, anti-DPPH activities of 83.96 and 73.65% were observed in the methanol extract of F. salicifolia fruits and leaves, respectively (Alzahrani et al., 2021). Ao et al., (2008) found that the antiradical activity of the methanolic extract of F. microcarpa fruits was higher against DPPH and ABTS radicals (IC50: 7.3 and 9.2 g/ml, respectively) than that of the leaf extract (IC50: 21.4 and 10.2 g/ml, respectively). In F. sur, the methanolic extracts of the fruit were forty times more effective against DPPH radicals than the leaf extract (IC50: 9.06 and 369.19 g/mL, respectively) (Ogunlaja et al., 2022).

Dose-dependent antioxidant activities of methanolic extracts from F. salicifolia fruits and leaves: (a) DPPH radical scavenging activity (%); (b) ABTS radical scavenging activity (%).
Fig. 6. Dose-dependent antioxidant activities of methanolic extracts from F. salicifolia fruits and leaves: (a) DPPH radical scavenging activity (%); (b) ABTS radical scavenging activity (%).

A FRAP test was performed to assess the ability of the extract of F. salicifolia fruits and leaves to reduce ferric iron (Fe3+) to ferrous iron (Fe2+). This reducing power depends on electron transfer from the extracts, which increases with increased absorption (Lahmass et al., 2018). The reducing power of F. salicifolia fruit and leaf extracts increased in proportion to the concentration. At the greatest dose of 400 g/mL, the leaf extract had a lower absorbance of 0.266 compared to the fruit extract’s high absorbance of 0.347. (Fig. 7a). Fruit extract may have a greater reducing capacity than the leaf solution because it contains more phenolic and flavonoid compounds. It has been shown that phenolic compounds including tannins, flavonoids, and phenols have the capacity to decrease the concentration of ferrous metal ions (Pulido et al., 2000, Dai and Mumper 2010, Vuolo et al., 2019). Comparable dose-dependent findings for reducing power activity were observed in fruit extracts of six species of Ficus (F. auriculata, F. racemosa, F. maclellandii, F. semicordata, F. hirta, and F. nervosa) (Tamuly et al., 2015). Silihe et al., (2022) found that the methanolic extract of F. umbellata demonstrated higher FRAP antioxidant capacity (223.72 ± 8.63 µg EAA/mg DW) than the aqueous extract (166.99 ± 14.50 µg EAA/mg DW).

(a) FRAP and (b) TAC of the fruits and leaves methanolic extract of F. salicifolia.
Fig. 7. (a) FRAP and (b) TAC of the fruits and leaves methanolic extract of F. salicifolia.

Fig. 7(b) shows that the leaf extracts (319.24 mg AAE/g DW) had significantly higher TAC as compared to the fruit extracts (224.48 mg AAE/g DW). Many previous articles have confirmed that methanolic extracts of some species of Ficus have high TAC (Melinda et al., 2010, Çalişkan and Aytekin Polat 2011, Jack Gbenenee et al., 2017, Silihe et al., 2022). The high TAC of extracts is due to their high concentration of phytochemicals like phenols, flavonols, and tannins, flavonoids, which convert reactive species into more stable and non-reactive compounds (Busuioc et al., 2020).

3.4 Cytotoxic effect of F. salicifolia extract

Research was conducted to analyze the impact of the fruits and leaves of F. salicifolia on MCF-7 cells. The study employed doses ranging from 25-400 μg/ml and used the MTT test. The findings indicated that the methanolic extracts from fruits and leaves exhibited varying degrees of cytotoxicity against MCF-7 cells at different concentrations (Fig. 8). At 400 μg/ml of fruit and leaf extract, growth inhibition was 59.32% and 60.67%, respectively. The cytotoxicity of the methanol extract of fruits on the MCF-7 cell line was found to be the highest, with an IC50 value of 114.47 µg/mL, compared to the methanol extract of leaves (IC50 value = 255.32 µg/mL). Phytochemical examinations of extracts that the fruit and leaf extracts of F. salicifolia are rich in many active compounds, including gallic acid, rutin, and quercetin, which have been demonstrated to be responsible for the cytotoxic effect (Ganeshpurkar and Saluja 2017, Zhang et al., 2019, Khorsandi et al., 2020, Imani et al., 2021). Recent research found that methanolic extracts of F. palmata leaves at 100 µg/mL exhibited a viability of 17.46% on the HepG2 cell line (Al-Qahtani et al., 2023). The inhibitory effects of F. carica fruit and leaf extract at dose of 1 mg/mL on Huh7it cell growth were observed to be 82.78 and 11.84%, respectively (Purnamasari et al., 2019).

The cytotoxicity of F. salicifolia fruit and leaf extracts at different concentrations. The data present the average ± SD. (* = p < 0.05 compared with negative control).
Fig. 8. The cytotoxicity of F. salicifolia fruit and leaf extracts at different concentrations. The data present the average ± SD. (* = p < 0.05 compared with negative control).

3.5 Antibacterial activity of F. salicifolia extract

The antibacterial activity of the methanol extracts of F. salicifolia fruits and leaves was evaluated against five bacterial strains (Table 3). The findings showed that both the fruits and leaves had varying ability to inhibit the growth of some of the tested bacterial strains (Table 3 and Fig. 9). The fruit extract exhibited the highest activity against S. aureus with an inhibition zone diameter of 15 mm, almost identical to that of gentamicin (15 mm), while the effect of the leaves was weaker (12 mm). For S. epidermidis, the leaves (11 mm) showed activity similar to that of the fruits (11 mm), but remained significantly lower than the positive control (20 mm). For E. coli, both extracts showed very weak activity (9 mm each) compared to gentamicin (17 mm). Very limited leaf activity was observed against E. faecalis (7 mm), while the fruit extract showed no activity against it. No response to S. typhimurium was recorded in either extract.

Table 3. Antibacterial activity of fruits and leaves of F. salicifolia methanolic extract against various pathogenic bacterial strains by well diffusion methods.
Test strains Zone of inhibition (mm)
Fruits Leaves Gentamicin
S. aureus 15 12 15
E. faecalis N 7 17
S. epidermidis 11 11 20
E. coli 9 9 17
S. typhimurium N N 15
Zone of inhibition of fruits and leaves of F. salicifolia methanolic extract against various pathogenic bacterial strains: (a) Salmonella typhimurium, (b) Staphylococcus epidermidis, (c) Enterococcus faecalis, (d) Staph aureus, (e) Escherichia coli.
Fig. 9. Zone of inhibition of fruits and leaves of F. salicifolia methanolic extract against various pathogenic bacterial strains: (a) Salmonella typhimurium, (b) Staphylococcus epidermidis, (c) Enterococcus faecalis, (d) Staph aureus, (e) Escherichia coli.

3.6 Estimation of soluble protein, sugar, and AA contents

The obtained results revealed a significant difference between the fruits and leaves of F. salicifolia in soluble protein, sugar, and AA (vitamin C) contents (Table 4). The results indicate that the leaves of F. salicifolia are a richer source of protein, sugar, and AA than its fruits. Specifically, the leaves contain significantly higher levels of soluble protein (22.08 mg/g DW), AA (33.73 mg/g DW), and sugar (40.17 mg/g DW) compared to the lower content found in the fruits. These results were consistent with prior findings by Gupta and Acharya (2019), who reported that F. semicordata leaves had higher protein, total carbohydrates, and AA than the fruits.

Table 4. Soluble protein, AA, and total sugar content in the fruits and leaves of F. salicifolia methanolic extract.
Fruits Leaves
Soluble protein (mg/g DW) 15.13 ± 0.67b 22.08 ± 0.22a
AA (mg/g DW) 15.17 ± 0.21b 33.73 ± 0.25a
Total sugar (mg/g DW) 29.24 ± 6.82b 40.17 ± 8.23a

The data present the average ± SD. a,b in the same row with different letters are significantly different at (p < 0.05).

3.7 Correlation analysis

Pearson correlation analysis was also used to investigate the relationships between total and specific bioactive chemicals and their biological activities. Significant correlations were observed for several phytochemical compounds (Fig. 10). For instance, both TFC and TF exhibited significantly positive correlations (P< 0.01) with DPPH and TAC, emphasizing their potential in antioxidants, and significantly negative correlations (P< 0.01) with ABTS and FRAP. On the other hand, TPC shown significant positive correlations (P< 0.05) with cytotoxicity.

Pearson correlation between phytochemicals and biological activities of F. salicifolia.
Fig. 10. Pearson correlation between phytochemicals and biological activities of F. salicifolia.

3.8 PCA and heatmap of biological and phytochemical characteristics

According to the findings of PCA, 90.67% of the variation was explained by the first two components (Fig. 11). Two primary variables, which accounted for 61.51% (PC 1) and 29.16% (PC 2) of the total variance, respectively, of the 12 qualities under consideration, were effectively identified by factor analysis. According to the results obtained in the biplot, there is a clear separation between leaf and fruit extracts. Leaf extracts were evaluated positively on PC 1 and negatively on PC 2, while fruit extracts were evaluated positively on PC 2 and negatively on PC 1

PCA of biological and phytochemical characteristics in F. salicifolia.
Fig. 11. PCA of biological and phytochemical characteristics in F. salicifolia.

Heatmap analysis was conducted using the soil, biological and phytochemical characteristics of F. salicifolia. The analysis resulted in the classification of the characteristics into four main groups (Fig. 12). The first group contained antioxidants (DPPH and TAC) and phytochemicals (TFC and TF), which were highest in leaf extracts. The second group contained quercetin, gallic acid and TTC, which were highest in leaf extracts. On the other hand, TPC and cytotoxicity were distributed in the third group and were highest in leaf extracts. Antioxidants (ABTS and FRAP) and rutin were highest in fruit extracts, which were distributed in the fourth group.

Heatmap analysis of biological and phytochemical characteristics in F. salicifolia.
Fig. 12. Heatmap analysis of biological and phytochemical characteristics in F. salicifolia.

4. Conclusions

The study shows that both leaf and fruit extracts of F. salicifolia contain a variety of bioactive phytochemicals with strong antioxidant properties. Differences in antioxidant capacity and cytotoxic activity between the two parts appear to correlate with their unique phytochemical profiles, both qualitatively and quantitatively. Notably, fruit extracts demonstrated higher antioxidant and cytotoxic effects, likely due to their greater levels of phenolic compounds, tannins, and rutin. These results indicate that F. salicifolia, especially the fruits, could be a valuable natural source of antioxidants. However, since these relationships are correlational, additional research involving compound isolation and mechanistic studies is needed to confirm specific bioactivities such as antimicrobial and anticancer effects. Furthermore, a significant correlation between phytochemical composition and soil properties suggests environmental factors may influence metabolite accumulation.

Acknowledgment

The authors are thankful to the Ongoing Research Funding program (ORF-2026-1499), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia for financial support.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Ahmed Qahtan: Conceptualization, sample collection, experiments, data collection, writing – original draft, review and editing, software, data analysis; Abdurahman A. Alatar: Conceptualization, manuscript preparation, design, review and editing; Ahmed S. Alobaidi: Experiments, data analysis, review and editing; Mohamed Faisal: Conceptualization, design, data analysis, review and editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process

The authors confirm that there was no use of artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology for assisting in the writing or editing of the manuscript and no images were manipulated using AI.

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