Exergo-environment and exergo-economic aspects of the blend of amines for carbon capture from natural gas

Bilal Kazmi; Syed Ali Ammar Taqvi; Farooq Ahmad; Hamad AlMohamadi; Salman Raza Naqvi

doi:10.25259/JKSUS_91_2024

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Research Article

2025

:37;

912024

doi:

10.25259/JKSUS_91_2024

Exergo-environment and exergo-economic aspects of the blend of amines for carbon capture from natural gas

Bilal Kazmi^a, Syed Ali Ammar Taqvi^b, Farooq Ahmad^c, Hamad AlMohamadi^d, Salman Raza Naqvi^e,*

aDepartment of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Karachi, KU Circular Rd, Karachi, Karachi City, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan

bDepartment of Chemical Engineering, NED University of Engineering and Technology, ervice Rd, NED University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi, Karachi City, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan

cDepartment of Chemical and Materials Engineering, College of Engineering, Northern Border University, Arar, Saudi Arabia

dDepartment of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Islamic University of Madinah, Abo Bakr Al Siddiq, Al Jamiah, Madinah 42351, Saudi Arabia

eDepartment of Engineering and Chemical Sciences, Karlstad University, Universitetsgatan 2, Karlstad, 65188, Sweden

*Corresponding author E-mail address: salman.raza.naqvi@kau.se (S. Naqvi)

Received: 2024-09-27, Accepted: 2025-06-04, Published: 2025-07-21

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Abstract

In response to escalating concerns over climate change and rising CO₂ emissions, this research investigates the efficiency, environmental impact, and economic feasibility of amine-based carbon capture processes from natural gas. The study focuses on optimizing solvent blends to enhance CO₂ capture efficiency while minimizing energy consumption and operational costs. Various solvent combinations of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines use a ‘comprehensive process systems engineering’ approach. The exergy analysis of amine-based carbon capture from natural gas showed considerable solvent performance differences. Diisopropanolamine (DIPA) performed the best, saving 91% of energy and minimizing energy losses. Monoethanolamine (MEA)+ DIPA had the highest exergy efficiency (99.204%), while DIPA had the lowest CO₂ emission rate (1207.04 kg/h) (5.7% lower than the maximum reported emissions). DIPA used 1.10 × 10⁸ kJ/h of energy efficiently, saving 58.8% and 63.3% compared to MEA + DIPA and diethanolamine (DEA) + MEA, respectively. DEA’s exergy destruction factor was 0.74, 77.7% lower than MEA’s (3.32), showing improved efficiency. DIPA had the highest exergy stability, 0.027, 96.9% more thermodynamically stable than MEA. DIPA was the most cost-effective option, with an annual exergy destruction cost of USD 3.86 × 10⁷, 91.3% cheaper than MEA’s (USD 4.43 × 10⁸). Additionally, DIPA had the most considerable yearly revenue from CO₂ sales at USD 4.83 × 10⁵, exceeding other solvent combinations. These results demonstrate DIPA’s superior efficacy across various parameters, suggesting it may be the best solvent.

Keywords

Amine solvents

Carbon capture

Economic avenues

Environmental impact

Exergy analysis

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1. Introduction

Recently, CO₂ capture systems have caught the interest of researchers because of the rise in CO₂ levels in the atmosphere. However, Global Greenhouse Gas emission statistics show that 78% of greenhouse gas emissions are due to the combustion of fossil fuels (Kazmi et al., 2019). Global warming has been causing an increase in ocean levels, violent hurricanes, and droughts. Although methane and chlorofluorocarbons are greenhouse gases, the primary focus is on reducing CO₂ emissions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) also says that if CO₂ emissions remain unchecked, by 2100 the atmosphere could hold 570 ppm, sufficient for a 1.9°C rise in global temperature and a 3.8 m rise in mean sea level. (Rogelj et al., 2018). Due to these environmental threats, there has been an upsurge in studies focusing mainly on reducing carbon emissions. CO₂ emissions from natural gas combustion considerably affect global warming, building high CO₂ concentrations, which concerns many researchers worldwide. After the Paris Agreement, international goals were set to reduce global warming by fixing the global average temperature rise to a maximum of 2°C. (Hulme, 2016). Research on CO₂ capture techniques has since accelerated (Baena-Moreno et al., 2019). Numerous countries, cities, regions, and large companies are striving to achieve the lowest possible carbon emissions to meet this goal (Paolini et al., 2019).

Therefore, various CO₂ capture techniques are being studied and practiced worldwide. Besides environmental concerns, CO₂ in natural gas reduces its corrosion value (Taqvi, Syed Ali Ammar; Kazmi, Bilal; naqvi, Salman Raza; Juchelkova, Dagmar; Bukhari, 2024). Stricter environmental regulations require industries to discharge less and less CO₂ into the environment, which requires an efficient process for CO₂ separation from natural gas in terms of gas loadings, energy duties, and cost (Gonzalez‒Diaz and García‒Núñez, 2023). Chemical Absorption is the most widely used technique (Carranza-Abaid et al., 2021). This technique employs solvents that absorb gases like CO₂ and H₂S from the sour gas. After absorption, the absorbed CO₂ is removed from the solvent, and the regenerated amine is reused. Amines, particularly monoethanolamine (MEA), are the most commercialized solvents in this process (Harem et al., 2024). However, the primary disadvantage of this process is that a large amount of energy is required during the regeneration process, which makes the process very uneconomical (Kazmi and Taqvi, 2024a).

On the other hand, physical absorption is primarily used for sequestering CO₂ from natural gas using CO₂-specific selectivity (Haghbakhsh and Raeissi, 2019). The process helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change. Typically, natural gas passes via an absorber and contacts a physical solvent like Selexol (Zubeir et al., 2018), Rectisol (Wang et al., 2019), or methanol (Li et al., 2019) under specific temperature and pressure. Due to their affinity for CO₂ , these solvents dissolve natural gas. After absorption, a desorber depressurizes or heats the CO₂-rich solution to release it for storage or usage. The solvent is returned to the absorber, ensuring continual efficiency. Physical absorption is an efficient and cost-effective method for capturing CO₂ from natural gas, especially at high concentrations, but it has substantial limitations at lower pressures and operating conditions (Kazmi et al., 2022c). These drawbacks necessitate the careful evaluation of natural gas composition and operating requirements before opting for this technology (Valencia-Marquez et al., 2015). Optimizing physical absorption in carbon capture and sequestration requires balancing lower energy consumption and more straightforward regeneration against higher capital costs and limited application in particular circumstances.

Hence, CO₂ emissions are a growing concern, and a solution providing a new benchmark for higher selectivity towards CO₂ sequestration and a synergistic effect on the overall processing is needed. Currently used and commercially sold solvents have some shortcomings, as already discussed (Hasan et al., 2021). Absorption through amines is the most appropriate for sources with low partial pressure of CO₂. A new concept is being investigated to prevent solvent degradation, improve absorption performance, and enhance acid gas separation from natural gas (Ejeh et al., 2020). Blends developed consist of primary or secondary amines (Ejeh et al., 2020). A blend must perform better over single solvents because of high CO₂ reaction rates, high CO₂ loading capacity, and little or no solvent degradation (Babaei layaei et al., 2024; Ellaf et al., 2023). These days, the absolute focus in the absorption process is on developing a solvent to overcome the drawbacks. The system, utilizing a hybrid solvent synthesized by combining various aspects of amines, will have the ability to accomplish a high absorption rate to meet the sales of natural gas specifications. This will aim to use minimum amount of solvent, reduce energy requirements for the regeneration of solvent, reduce process thermodynamic irreversibilities (Kazmi et al., 2022a), and reduce the process capital and operating cost (Sarfaraz et al., 2023) to make it more feasible to apply on the commercial scale, and most notably better the environmental prospect (Kazmi et al., 2022). The exergo-environmental assessment of CO₂ capture using amine blends is not well-documented in the literature. Although considerable work has been done on the thermodynamic and economic challenges of amine-based CO₂ capture, there is little detail regarding the life cycle environmental impacts of these systems. For instance, the ecological effects of amine production, degradation, and disposal, and the overall carbon footprint of amine blend systems, have not been thoroughly explored (Ding et al., 2023).

Additionally, Ding et al. (Ding et al., 2023) have observed that exergo-economic analysis, which combines exergy analysis with economic evaluation, is a powerful tool for assessing the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of energy systems. However, its application in amine blend systems for CO₂ capture is limited. Most studies focus on techno-economic assessments (TEAs), which evaluate capital and operating costs but do not consider exergy destruction and its economic implications. While laboratory-scale studies have demonstrated the potential of amine blends for CO₂ capture, data from pilot-scale and industrial applications are scarce. Apart from that, the environmental impact of amine blends extends beyond CO₂ capture efficiency. The toxicity, biodegradability, and potential for amine emissions are critical considerations not adequately addressed in the literature (Kim et al., 2024; Tiwari et al., 2023). Willhelm et al. and Li et al. identified the lack of a standardized methodology for conducting exergo-environmental and exergo-economic assessments of amine blends. This lack of standardization makes it difficult to compare results across studies and identify best practices (Li et al., 2024; Wilhelm et al., 2018). Few studies have addressed the uncertainty and sensitivity of exergo-environmental and exergo-economic assessments of amine blends. The impact of variations in operating conditions, amine concentrations, and environmental factors on system performance remains poorly understood (Han et al., 2024). Developing sustainable amine blend systems requires cross-disciplinary collaboration between chemists, engineers, and environmental scientists. However, most studies are conducted within disciplinary silos, limiting the integration of diverse perspectives and expertise. Addressing the research gaps highlighted in the literature (Table 1) in the exergo-environmental and exergo-economic assessment of amine blends for CO₂ capture from natural gas is essential for advancing the field.

Table 1. Summary of research and its implications based on the exergo-environmental and exergo-economic assessment of amine blends for CO₂ capture from natural gas.

Year	Research gap	Implications	Reference
2023	Lack of comprehensive exergo-environmental assessments	Limits understanding of environmental sustainability	(Ding et al., 2023; Tiwari et al., 2023)
2023	Limited integration of exergo-economic analysis	Prevents optimization of energy efficiency and cost-effectiveness	(Ding et al., 2023)
2024	Insufficient pilot-scale and industrial data	Hinders validation of amine blend performance under real-world conditions	(Li et al., 2024; Wilhelm et al., 2018)
2024	Limited focus on environmental impact	Restricts understanding of amine blend sustainability	(Kim et al., 2024; Tiwari et al., 2023)
2023	Underutilization of advanced modeling techniques	Limits development of comprehensive assessment tools	(Liu et al., 2023; Wilhelm et al., 2018)
2024	Need for standardized methodologies	Makes it difficult to compare results across studies	(Li et al., 2024; Wilhelm et al., 2018)
2018	Inadequate consideration of uncertainty	Limits robustness of exergo-environmental and exergo-economic assessments	(Han et al., 2024)
2022	Limited exploration of novel amine blends	Restricts development of innovative solutions	(Jayaraman, 2022; Waseem et al., 2024)
2024	Insufficient attention to heat management	Limits development of energy-efficient systems	(Jiang and Li, 2023; Waseem et al., 2024)
2024	Need for cross-disciplinary collaboration	Restricts development of holistic solutions	(Li et al., 2024; Wilhelm et al., 2018)

Furthermore, the literature also shows and highlights several key gaps in the field of amine-based carbon capture processes: (1) insufficient exergy analysis and optimization for amine blends, (2) limited understanding of amine degradation, volatility, and toxicity, (3) a need for systematic design of binary and ternary amine blends, and (4) challenges in scaling up and integrating amine-based processes (Table 2). These gaps represent areas requiring further investigation to improve the efficiency and sustainability of amine-based carbon capture technologies.

Table 2. Identification of the key research gap areas based on the literature.

Research area	Key gaps	Citation
Exergy efficiency	Lack of comprehensive exergy analysis and optimization for amine blends.	(Arcis et al., 2016; Sornumpol et al., 2024)
Environmental impact	Limited understanding of amine degradation, volatility, and toxicity.	(Du et al., 2024; Gautam and Mondal, 2024)
Amine blend composition	Need for systematic design of binary and ternary blends.	(Eletta et al., 2022; Han et al., 2024; Sornumpol et al., 2024)
Technological applications	Challenges in scaling up and integrating amine-based processes.	(Eletta et al., 2022; Strojny et al., 2023)

Hence, this study’s primary goal is to select the favorable solvent in terms of exergy, exergo-economic, and exergo-environment aspects for CO₂ separation from natural gas with the selection of the most efficient hybrid solvent based on primary, secondary, and tertiary amines according to the principles of process system engineering. Amine blends offer a versatile and effective solution for carbon capture from natural gas, with significant advantages in terms of exergy efficiency, environmental impact, and technological applications. The composition of the amine blend plays a critical role in determining its performance, and ongoing research continues to optimize these blends for various industrial applications. This study aims to develop a more efficient and sustainable carbon capture solvent system by leveraging the synergistic effects of different amines.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Process assumptions

The process simulation is modeled based on certain assumptions taken into account to analyze the process aspects, which are as follows:

The N_₂ and H_₂S have been removed and are assumed to have been removed before the amine-based treatment of the process (Ellaf et al., 2023).
The heat exchanger’s pressure drop is maintained at 2-3 kPa. The distillation column’s top and bottom pressure drops are 0.69-13.8 kPa. The water-based coolers’ pressure drop is approximately 24.5-25 kPa (Wakabayashi et al., 2018).
Negligible heat loss to the environment (Kazmi et al., 2021a).
The overall mechanical efficiency of the turbomachinery equipment is assumed to be 75-80% (Junaid Haider et al., 2019).

2.2 Process overview

While descending through the absorption column, the sour gas encounters the lean solvent solution, consisting of a combination of different amines. The solvent selectively absorbs CO₂ as it flows through the natural gas stream. CH₄ does not get absorbed in the solution due to its almost negligible solubility. Purified natural gas containing ≥ 99 wt.% CH₄ exits the absorption column at the top. The CO₂-rich and solvent stream with slight traces of CH₄emerges from the bottom of the absorber. The bottom stream is then routed towards firstly towards a flash separator, which operates at reduced pressure to isolate the CH₄ content from the CO₂-rich solvent stream. The bottom stream of the flash column is now mostly comprised of moieties of an aqueous blend of amine solution and CO₂. It required further processing to break the bonds between CO₂ and amine molecules. For this, a solvent solution rich in amines is heated in a heat exchanger. After attaining the desired temperature, the amine and CO₂-rich stream is routed to the regenerator column, where the absorbed CO₂ is separated from the solvent solution at low pressure and high temperature. Because the bottom stream of the regenerator column, containing lean amine solvent, is already at a high temperature, it is used to preheat the rich solution by running through a heat exchanger. Then, the cooled cooler is used to send the previously heated solvent solution back to the absorber column. The design parameters and the process conditions were taken from our previous study (Ellaf et al., 2023). The process scheme has been illustrated in Fig. 1.

Process schematic scheme for the natural gas absorption-based process for carbon capture.

2.3 Thermodynamic model

Acid gas-chemical solvents are selected based on their property package. The acid gas property package contains the Peng-Robinson Equation of state, the electrolyte non-random two-liquid (eNRTL) activity coefficient model, and properties data for amine solutions (Dash and Bandyopadhyay, 2016). This model has chemical reactions already incorporated into the fluid package, so there is no need to specify them before entering the simulation environment. The Peng-Robinson equation of state (PR-EOS) is most commonly utilized for natural gas systems in the oil and gas industries (Yokozeki and Shiflett, 2010). PR-EOS and Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK) equations of state are used for all non-polar hydrocarbon systems (Nakhaei-Kohani et al., 2022). The PR-EOS is extensively used to predict the volumetric properties of the hydrocarbon mixtures. It has been shown to outperform the SRK equation in predicting gas-oil ratios and liquid densities, with a significant portion of the best-performing models utilizing the PR-EOS (Paes et al., 2024). The comparison of PR-EOS with SRK reveals that both equations yield similar results (Barbosa and Gor, 2023); however, for vapor/condensate systems, the results obtained by the PR-EOS are marginally better. According to PR-EOS eq (1-5):

(1)

P = \frac{R T}{V_{m} - b} - \frac{α α}{V_{m}^{2} + 2 V_{m} - b^{2}}

(2)

a = \frac{0.45724 R^{2} T_{c}^{2}}{P_{c}}

(3)

b = \frac{0.07780 R T_{c}}{P_{c}}

(4)

α = {(1 + (0.37464 + 1.54226 ω - 0.2699 ω^{2}) (1 - T_{r}^{0.5}))}^{2}

(5)

T_{r} = \frac{T}{T_{c}}

For vapor-liquid equilibrium mixtures, the PR-EOS is applicable to hydrocarbon systems containing homologous series with pressures greater than 10 bar. Since our system is based on natural gas and operates within the applicability limit of temperatures and pressures for the PR-EOS, using the latter in acid chemical solvents is justified. It is used to estimate the properties of the vapor phase. The heat of absorption, enthalpy, and heat capacity of the liquids are determined using the activity coefficient model, which is suitable for liquid-vapor equilibrium and aqueous phase chemical equilibrium (Słupek et al., 2020). This is called the activity coefficient and depends on several factors, including the temperature and pressure of the liquid, the composition of the mixture, and the chosen reference. It is used for systems of high non-idealities and two-phase liquids. The eNRTL model estimates the electrolyte thermodynamics of acid gas chemical solvents. The parameters for the eNRTL model for amine solvents are regressed from the thermodynamic and physical property data (Kamgar et al., 2017).

The application of thermodynamics in the exergo-environmental and exergo-economic assessment of amine blends for CO₂ capture from natural gas is critical for evaluating the sustainability and efficiency of these technologies. Exergy analysis, a key thermodynamic methodology, enables the assessment of energy losses in the CO₂ capture process, particularly when utilizing MEA absorption technology. This method quantifies the exergy loss associated with various system components, such as the absorber and flue gas blower, providing insights into the performance of the capture process.

2.4 Process analysis: Study of amine blends

2.4.1 Exergy analysis

The energy provided to the system can be broken down into two parts, as explained by the second law of thermodynamics. From a process analysis perspective, exergy analysis is a powerful tool rooted in thermodynamics that provides valuable insights into the efficiency of energy systems and potential improvements (Kazmi et al., 2021b). Exergy is the maximum practical work that can be obtained from a system as it goes to equilibrium with its surroundings. Unlike energy, exergy can be destroyed because of irreversibilities in real processes.(Kazmi et al., 2023). Exergy can be categorized into two types: physical exergy, which indicates the possible physical changes or irreversibilities that occur in the process (Mohamadi-Baghmolaei et al., 2021), and chemical exergy, which explains the changes or irreversibilities resulting from potential chemical changes in the process (Arslan and Yılmaz, 2023). It can be represented mathematically as:

(6)

E x_{T o t a l} = E x_{P h y s i c a l} + E x_{C h e m i c a l}

(7)

\begin{matrix} E x_{T o t a l} = [h_{i} (T, P) - h_{o} (T_{o}, P_{o}) - T_{i} (e_{i} (T, P) - e_{i} (T_{o}, P_{o}))] \\ + \sum_{i} ε_{i}^{o} x_{i} + R T_{o} \sum_{i} x_{i} \ln x_{i} \end{matrix}

2.5 Exergo-environmental analysis

The exergo environmental analysis provides a robust framework for analyzing the study process, as well as the environmental impact of exergy destruction through various processes (Kazmi et al., 2022). A more in-depth analysis of the process parameters on ecological sustainability is performed by performing an exergy analysis and combining environmental indicators. This method is useful for promoting sustainable development by allowing for the identification and improvement of processes, thereby reducing its negative impact on the environment. (Kazmi et al., 2022b). A novel thermodynamic approach, exergo-environmental analysis, promotes sustainability by evaluating the environmental impact of the process parameters. It considers environmental evaluations and exergy analysis, applying them together to evaluate the environmental impacts of exergy destruction using several indices and parameters. Several important parameters are included in this analysis, such as the Exergy Stability Factor (ESF), Environmental Benign Index (EBI), and Exergy Destruction Index (EDI).

(8)

E D F = \frac{\sum E x_{d e s t r u c t i o n}}{E x_{t o t a l i n}}

(9)

E D I = f_{e i} C_{e i}

(10)

E B I = \frac{1}{θ_{i}}

(11)

E S F = \frac{\sum E x_{t o t a l d e s}}{\sum E x_{o u t o u t} + \sum E x_{t o t a l d e s} + 1}

2.6 Exergo-economic analysis

An all-encompassing method for assessing and improving energy systems, exergoeconomic analysis integrates economic and thermodynamic principles (Joshi and Tiwari, 2018; Kazmi and Taqvi, 2024b). The idea of exergy, which quantifies the potential work-doubling capacity of various energy sources, is central to this approach. The primary goal of exergo-economic analysis is to assess and evaluate inefficiencies in energy and economic losses, with the aim of evaluating the cost-effectiveness of energy conversion processes (Blumberg, 2018). A comprehensive exergy analysis measures the system"s exergy losses and exergy destruction. It can be expressed as:

(12)

\dot{E_{I N}} - \dot{E_{o u t}} = \dot{E_{d e s}} + \dot{E_{l o s s}}

Where $\dot{E_{I N}}$ and $\dot{E_{o u t}}$ Are the rates of exergy entering and leaving the system, respectively, while ${\dot{E}}_{d e s}$ and ${\dot{E}}_{l o s s}$ represent the exergy destruction rates due to irreversibilities and exergy losses to the environment. The next step is to combine the exergy and cost data using exergoeconomic analysis. The first step is to put a monetary value on each of the system"s exergy streams, which the equation can represent as:

(13)

C_{I N} + Z = C_{o u t}

Where C_in and C_out are the costs associated with the incoming and outgoing exergy streams, respectively, and Z represents the capital and operational cost associated with the process. Additional equations are frequently employed in exergoeconomic analysis to allocate the expenses of exergy loss and exergy destruction among the various components. It is possible to express the exergy destruction cost rate for a component k as (Mehrpooya et al., 2021):

(14)

\dot{C_{d e s, k}} = c_{k} * \dot{E_{d e s, k}}

where C_k is the specific cost of exergy entering the component k, and ${\dot{E}}_{d e s, k}$ is the exergy destruction rate within that component.

2.7 Enviro-economic analysis

To reduce adverse environmental effects and increase positive economic outcomes, capturing and selling CO₂ is a common component of enviro-economic analyses (Joshi and Tiwari, 2018). In this method, one first calculates the possible revenue from selling captured CO₂ after deducting the expenses associated with transporting, storing, and using the gas. The total cost of capturing CO₂ (C_capture) is a combination of the capital, operational, and maintenance costs of the CO₂ capture technology. This can be expressed as:

(15)

C_{C a p t u r e} = C_{c a p i t a l} + C_{o p e r a t i o n a l} + C_{m a i n t e n a n c e}

After CO₂ has been captured, it can be resold to businesses that use it in carbonating drinks, enhancing oil recovery, or chemical reactions. The quantity of CO₂ sold and its market price determine the income made from selling the captured CO₂ (RCO₂):

(16)

R_{CO2} = Quantity of {CO}_{2} captured and sold \times Market price of the {CO}_{2}

CO₂ capture expenses and possible sales revenue. Eco-economic analysis can provide a better understanding of the profitability and advantages of greenhouse gas reduction solutions. This analysis can advance economic and environmental goals by identifying the best ways to generate more money while decreasing CO₂ emissions.

3. Result & Discussion

3.1 Exergy analysis results

Exergy analysis provides crucial insights into the efficiency and energy losses associated with different solvent systems in the context of amine-based carbon capture processes for natural gas. Exergy destruction and efficiency results, as depicted in Fig. 2, show the performance of solvents in terms of their ability to capture CO₂ while minimizing energy losses. Diethanolamine (DEA), with MEA and diisopropanolamine (DIPA) individually, shows slightly lower exergy efficiencies at 99.140% and 99.178%, respectively. These differences, while marginal, suggest that MEA+DIPA offers a slight performance advantage in exergy efficiency over these configurations. Moreover, in terms of exergy destruction, MEA alone registers a higher value (3.74×10⁵ kW) compared to DEA (6.17×10⁴ kW) and DIPA (3.24×10⁴ kW), indicating higher energy losses in the MEA system. However, when MEA is combined with DIPA, despite higher exergy destruction (1.77×10⁶ kW), the resultant exergy efficiency remains superior, underscoring the balanced utilization of energy in the capture process. Also, from Fig. 2, it can be deduced that DIPA achieves the highest exergy savings at 91%. This indicates its superior efficiency in minimizing energy losses compared to other solvents. DEA follows with 84% exergy saving, 7.7% lower than DIPA. MEA+DIPA achieves 79%, which is 12.2% less than DIPA. The DEA + MEA blend has a 74% exergy saving, 18.7% lower than DIPA. MEA, although commonly used, shows the lowest exergy savings among the solvents analyzed.

Exergy destruction, exergy efficiency, and exergy saving analyzed for the amines and the hybrid blend of studied amines for the carbon capture from natural gas.

3.2 Environmental analysis results

Analyses of the environmental impacts of carbon capture from natural gas using amines have yielded significant information regarding the efficacy of different solvent combinations, as shown in Fig. 3. With a CO₂ emission rate of only 1207.04 kg/h, DIPA is the best solvent out of the ones considered. DIPA operates at a rate of 1280 kg/h, a 5.7% decrease from the highest CO₂ emissions ever recorded. Additionally, compared with DEA and MEA+DIPA, DIPA"s carbon capture rate is ≥ 99%, just 0.001027% lower. Energy consumption is a key area where DIPA excels. Compared to MEA+DIPA (2. ×10⁰⁸ kJ/h) and DEA+MEA (3.00×10⁸ kJ/h), DIPA"s usage of 1.10×10⁸ kJ/h is significantly lower. Approximately 58.8% and 63.3% of energy is saved as a result of this. Additionally, in other blends like MEA+DIPA and DEA+MEA, DIPA has a substantially lower Specific Primary Energy Consumption for CO₂ Avoided (SPECCA) of 1.83×10⁰¹. The results shown in Fig. 3 indicate a decrease of 97.5% and a decrease of 97.7%.

Environmental analysis of the different combinations of amines for the carbon capture from the natural gas.

In addition, compared to MEA"s specific CO₂ emission rate of 69.1% and DEA"s specific CO₂ emission rate of 47.5%, DIPA"s 2.76×10^-05 kg CO₂/kmol is far lower. Compared to other amine solvents, DIPA has significantly reduced energy requirements and less environmental impact, reducing CO₂ emissions and capturing CO₂ more efficiently. DIPA is the most efficient and eco-friendly way to capture carbon when processing natural gas.

3.3 Exergo-environmental analysis result

The exergo-environmental analysis of amine-based carbon capture from natural gas reveals significant variations in the performance of different solvent combinations. The results shown in Fig. 4 highlight that DEA shows an exergy destruction factor (fei) of 0.74, significantly lower than MEA, which records a factor of 3.32, translating to a reduction of approximately 77.7%. This indicates that DEA is more efficient in minimizing exergy destruction. Additionally, DEA exhibits an EDI (Cei) of 0.011, about 67.8% lower than MEA+DIPA, reflecting better efficiency. DEA"s environmental destruction index (θi) is 0.0078, demonstrating a decrease of 92.8% compared to MEA"s value of 0.10. This shows the DEA"s superior performance in reducing environmental harm. The EBI (θii) for DEA is notably high at 126.67, indicating a significantly lower environmental impact than MEA, which has an index of 9.11. DEA + MEA also performs well with a θii of 116.06, which is slightly lower than DEA but still vastly superior to MEA and other blends.

Exergo-environmental assessment of the blends of amines for the carbon capture.

Regarding exergy stability, DIPA outperforms all other solvents with an EFS of 0.027, although its environmental performance is relatively lower with a θi of 2.03. The fes for MEA is 0.89, significantly higher, indicating that DIPA is approximately 96.9% more stable thermodynamically. However, DIPA"s EBI (θii) is much lower at 0.49, suggesting a trade-off between thermodynamic stability and environmental impact.

3.4 Exergo-economic analysis result

The exergo-economic analysis of amine-based carbon capture from natural gas reveals significant cost variations associated with exergy destruction among different solvents. As shown in Fig. 5. The analysis results depict that DIPA is the most cost-effective option, with the lowest cost of exergy destruction per year at USD 3.86×10⁷. This figure is notably lower than that of MEA, which incurs an annual exergy destruction cost of USD 4.43×10⁸. This represents a dramatic decrease of approximately 91.3%, highlighting DIPA"s superior economic efficiency. DEA also demonstrates favorable economic performance with an annual exergy destruction cost of USD 7.30×10⁷, 83.5% less than MEA"s. The DEA+] MEA blend, while more costly than DEA alone, still shows a significant reduction in exergy destruction costs at USD 1.15×10⁸ per year, marking a 74.0% decrease compared to MEA. Conversely, the MEA+DIPA blend incurs the highest cost of exergy destruction at USD 2.10×10⁹ per year. This cost is approximately 4.7 times higher than that of MEA, underscoring the economic disadvantage of this particular solvent combination despite its potentially favorable environmental or performance characteristics.

Cost associated with the exergy destruction involved for the carbon capture from natural gas.

3.5 Enviro-economic analysis result

According to the results shown in Fig. 6, the enviro-economic study of amine-based carbon capture from natural gas emphasizes the economic benefits of selling captured CO₂. Revenue from CO₂ sales for DIPA is USD 4.83×10⁵ per annum, making it the most economically viable solvent among those that were studied. With an annual increase of 0.004% compared to DEA + MEA"s yearly sales, this amount marginally surpasses the income from other solvent combinations. Compared to MEA+DIPA, which is generated annually, the revenue gain is around 0.0008% when using DIPA. Also, DIPA"s revenue is slightly higher than DEA"s, at around 0.002%. Lastly, when looking at the yearly earnings of MEA vs DIPA, we can see that DIPA has a slight advantage of 0.0004%.

Relating environmental and economic aspects of the carbon capture from natural gas.

3.6 Comparison with the literature

Table 3 compares several carbon capture processes regarding exergy efficiency, carbon capture rate, exergy destruction, CO₂ emission rate, and mentioned costs. An exergy efficiency of 30.26% was achieved in the MEA-based process (Base Case), consistent with values found in the reported literature (25–35%). Compared to the DEA-based process (Case-I), the exergy efficiency was found to be 93.96%, which is in the range of expectation (85–95%). An almost perfect exergy efficiency of 100.01% was obtained in the MEA+DIPA combination (Case-II), which, in turn, indicates the upper range of 90 – 98%. The total exergy destruction for MEA and DEA cases was 3.74 × 10⁵ kW and 6.17 × 10⁴ kW, respectively, with a much more extensive knowledge of 1.77 × 10⁶ kW for MEA+DIPA cases. Meanwhile, exergy destruction costs differed, and the DEA process was much lower (USD 7.30 × 10⁷/year) than the MEA+DIPA process (USD 2.10 × 10⁹/year). Overall, the DEA-based processes show high efficiency with low exergy destruction and cost. In contrast, the MEA+DIPA system has near-perfect exergy efficiency but with higher operation cost and exergy destruction.

Table 3. Performance variable comparison with the literature-based similar studies

Parameter	This study	Literature values	References
MEA (base case)
Exergy efficiency (%)	30.26%	25-35%	(Khan et al., 2015)
Carbon capture rate (%)	99.99%	85-95%	(Rochelle et al., 2011)
Total exergy destruction (kW)	3.74 × 10^⁵	(3.5-4.1) × 10^⁵	(Abu-Zahra et al., 2007)
CO2 emission rate (kg/hr)	1.28 × 10^³	(1.0-1.5) × 10^³	(Olajire, 2010)
Specca	-	(3.2-3.8) × 10^²	(Olajire, 2010)
Cost of exergy destruction (USD/year)	4.43 × 10^⁶	(3.8-5.5) × 10^⁶	(Meerman et al., 2012)
DEA (Case-I)
Exergy efficiency (%)	93.96%	85-95%	(Tan et al., 2012)
Carbon capture rate (%)	99.99%	95-99%	(Koronaki et al., 2015)
Total exergy destruction (kW)	6.17 × 10^⁴	(5.8-7.2) × 10^⁴	(Meerman et al., 2012)
Specific CO₂ emissions	5.26 × 10^{^-5}	(4.8-5.5) × 10^{^-5}	(Dave et al., 2009)
fei (exergy destruction factor)	0.74	0.65-0.80	(Amrollahi et al., 2011)
Cost of exergy destruction ($/year)	7.30 × 10^⁷	(6.5-8.0) × 10^⁷	(Meerman et al., 2012)
MEA + DIPA (Case-II)
Exergy efficiency (%)	100.01%	90-98%	(Singh et al., 2003)
Carbon capture rate (%)	99.99%	95-99.5%	(Koronaki et al., 2015)
Total exergy destruction (kW)	1.77 × 10^⁶	(1.5-2.0) × 10^⁶	(Koronaki et al., 2015)
CO2 emission rate (kg/hr)	1217.69	1100-1300	(Abu-Zahra et al., 2007)
fei (environmental destruction index)	0.16	0.12-0.18	(Koronaki et al., 2015)
Cost of exergy destruction ( USD /year)	2.10 × 10^⁹	(1.8-2.3) × 10^⁹	(Meerman et al., 2012)
DEA + MEA (Case-III)
Exergy efficiency (%)	99.14%	90-97%	(Singh et al., 2003)
Carbon capture rate (%)	99.99%	98-99.9%	Zhang et al., (2017)
Total exergy destruction (kW)	9.71 × 10^⁴	9.0 × 10^⁴-1.1 × 10^⁵	(Abu-Zahra et al., 2007)
EFS	0.46	0.40-0.50	(Koronaki et al., 2015)
Cost of exergy destruction (USD/year)	1.15 × 10^⁸	(1.0-1.3) × 10^⁸	Xue et al., (2017)
DIPA (Case-IV)
Exergy efficiency (%)	99.18%	90-99%	(Singh et al., 2003)
Carbon capture rate (%)	99.99%	98-99.9%	(Khan et al., 2015)
Total exergy destruction (kW)	3.24 × 10^⁴	(3.0-4.0) × 10^⁴	(Meerman et al., 2012)
EFS	0.03	0.02-0.05	(Koronaki et al., 2015)
Cost of exergy destruction (USD/year)	3.86 × 10^⁷	(3.5-4.5) × 10^⁷	(Meerman et al., 2012)

4. Conclusion

The comprehensive analysis of amine-based carbon capture processes from natural gas provides significant insights into the efficiency, environmental impact, and economic considerations of different solvent systems. Key findings can be summarized as follows:

MEA + DIPA demonstrates the highest exergy efficiency at 100.014%, indicating optimal CO_₂ capture capability with minimal energy losses. DEA with MEA and DIPA individually show slightly lower efficiencies (99.140% and 99.178%, respectively), suggesting MEA+DIPA offers a slight advantage in exergy efficiency over these configurations.
DIPA is the most environmentally friendly option, with significantly lower CO_₂ emissions and reduced energy consumption than other solvents. Its SPECCA is notably lower, indicating higher efficiency in capturing and mitigating CO_₂ emissions.
DEA performs superior in minimizing exergy destruction and environmental impact indices compared to MEA and MEA+DIPA, highlighting its potential for reducing overall process ecological harm.
DIPA is the most cost-effective solvent, with the lowest yearly exergy destruction cost. Economic efficiency is much higher than MEA, suggesting it could lower carbon capture technology prices.
DIPA generates the most revenue from CO_₂ sales, highlighting its economic feasibility over alternative solvent combinations.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at Northern Border University, Arar, KSA, for funding this research work through the project number "NBU-FFR-2025-1243-02

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Bilal Kazmi: Conceptualization, methodology, original draft writing, formal analysis, visualization. Syed Ali Ammar Taqvi: data curation, original-draft writing, review & editing, validation. Salman Raza Naqvi: Review & editing, project administration, original-draft writing. Hamad Almohamdi: Review & editing, funding acquisition, Supervision. Farooq Ahmed: Review & editing, funding acquisition

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process

The authors confirm that there was no use of artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology for assisting in the writing or editing of the manuscript and no images were manipulated using AI.

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Exergo-environment and exergo-economic aspects of the blend of amines for carbon capture from natural gas

Abstract

Keywords

Amine solvents

Carbon capture

Economic avenues

Environmental impact

Exergy analysis

1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Process assumptions

2.2 Process overview

2.3 Thermodynamic model

2.4 Process analysis: Study of amine blends

2.4.1 Exergy analysis

2.5 Exergo-environmental analysis

2.6 Exergo-economic analysis

2.7 Enviro-economic analysis

3. Result & Discussion

3.1 Exergy analysis results

3.2 Environmental analysis results

3.3 Exergo-environmental analysis result

3.4 Exergo-economic analysis result

3.5 Enviro-economic analysis result

3.6 Comparison with the literature

4. Conclusion

Acknowledgments

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Declaration of competing interest

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process

References

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